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method: 


L  exemplaire  filmi  fut  raproduit  grica  i  la 
ginArositi  de: 

Univenity  of  Alberts 
Edmonton 

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par  le  premier  plat  et  en  terminant  soit  par  la 
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d'impression  ou  d'illustration,  soit  par  la  second 
plat,  selon  le  cas.  Tous  les  autres  exemplaires 
originaux  sont  filmAs  an  commenpant  par  la 
premiAre  paga  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'impression  ou  d'illustration  at  an  terminant  par 
la  darnlAra  paga  qui  comporta  una  talla 
empreinte. 

Un  das  symbolas  suivants  apparaitra  sur  la 
dernlAra  image  da  cheque  microfiche,  selon  le 

cas:  le  symbole         signifie  "A  SUIVRE".  la 
symbole  V  signifie  "FIN". 

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filmds  A  des  taux  de  reduction  diffdrents. 
Lorsque  le  document  est  trop  grand  pour  etre 
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de  Tangle  supirieur  gauche,  de  gauche  h  droite, 
at  de  haut  en  bas,  en  prenant  le  nombre 
d'images  nacessaire.  Les  diagrammes  suivants 
iliustrant  la  mithoda. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

MICROCOPY  RESOLUTION  TEST  CHART 

lANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHART  No  7) 


Dr.  Martin's  "Comptndium  of  Information" 

A  r.YCLE  OF  pATHAY 

or 

China,  South  and  North 
W.  A.  P.  MARTIN.  D.D.,  LL.D. 

VrfiidfHt  of  tkf  imprrial  Umrrr^itv  >       •  ktitf 

With  Seventy  Illustrations,  Map  anj  liidtx,  Kvo, 
Decorated  Cloth,  $}.oo 

"  A  KhoUrly  epitaiiir  ul  ihi-  lifr  .n  Ii.uikIh  uf  thr  r.hi 
iifse  imtiiin  for  upwards  u(  fmir  iliuu^jnd  vejrs."—  rhi/a- 

■Will  jilii  eveti  III  the  'pi-:i,t!t^l^  knowi('it)re  of  Chinrse 
charactrr.    A  ston-luiuse  of  f.uls  arui  persohal  rcmini^trn- 

Ce»."  .SjM  hlillhl^iO  I  lit  Dim  ii 

*'  Nowhere  can  be  found  a  more  luiTiinou.s  sketch  of  (Ihi- 
ni  se  history  duririfi  the  lait  four  thouuiul  yur*  , . .  With 
the  .(ctual  political  and  ftocijl  condition  of  th«  country." — 

Nru-  york  Sun. 

"Iljrneitly  to  be  commtmlcit  for  itf  liberality  of  view, 
wealth  of  Infornution  and  clear  knowledge."— floiiuii 


PLEMINQ  H.  RBVELL  COMPANY 
Niw  You :  liS  Fifth  Ave.    Cinatco :  6)  Wuhington  St. 
ToaOHTO:  3?  Richmond  St.  West. 


f 


1)K   VV.  A.  1'.  MAKTIN" 


The  Lore  of  Cathay 

or 

The  Intellect  of  China 


BY 

W.  A.  p.  MARTIN,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

Pnsident  0f  Ik*  Ckintt*  ImptrM  Unipn  titr 
AUTHOK  or 

"A  CYCLE  or  CATHAY,"  "TH«  SIBOB  W  PBKINO,"  BTC..  ETC 


ILLVSTRJTED 


NEW  TOBK  CHICAGO  TORONTO 

FLEMING  H.  RFVKLL  COMPANY 
1901 


Copyright  1901 

by 

FLEMING  H.  REVELL  COMPANY 
(September) 


r  ' 


UNIVERSITY 
OF  ALBEHTA  UBBAH7 


TO  THE 

Hon.  JOHN  W.  FOSTER 

roKUERLY  SECRETARY  OF  STATE  OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES  OF  AMERICA 


39449'> 


PREFACE 


CCfTTlHE  Lore  of  Cathay,"  is  an  essential  comple- 
■  mcnt  to  •'  A  Cycle  of  Cathay."  'i'lic  latter 
represents  the  active  life  of  the  Chinese  as 
it  appeared  to  the  writer  in  the  course  of  a  long  and 
varic.l  experience.  This  hook  mirrors  their  intellectual 
life  as  it  developed  under  investigations  extending  tlirough 
many  years  of  intimate  association  with  Chinese  scholars, 
ami  of  identificati(jn  with  Chinese  education. 

Its  contents  comprise  the''"  Ilanlin  Papers,"  revised 
and  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  much  new  matter.  Its 
materials  have  been  drawn  exclusively  from  native 
sources,  and  are  the  result  of  original  research.  The  author 
has  treated,  with  considerable  detail,  of  subjects  so  diverse 
as  Chinese  education  and  Chinese  alchemy;  and  he  ven- 
tures to  believe  that  he  throws  fresh  light  on  some  points 
of  Oriental  iterature,  science  and  philosophy ;  an.l  that  he 
may  fairly  clami,  as  a  field  of  his  own  discovery,  the  inter- 
national law  and  diplomacy  of  the  ancient  Chinese. 

In  th^  San  Kuo  Chi  it  is  laid  down  as  a  law  of  the 
national  hfe,  confirmed  l.y  history,  that  the  Chinese  Em- 
pire, when  It  has  been  long  united,  is  sure  to  be  divided- 
when  It  has  been  long  divided,  is  sure  to  be  reunited' 
Just  now  the  centrifugal  forces  are  portentously  active, 
bl.c.uld  they  eventuate  in  partition,  that  state  of  things 
could  not  be  permanent,  though  it  might  accelerate  the 
acquisitKni  ot  our  Western  civilization  by  the  people  of 
Chma.   Quickened  into  new  life,  they  would  be  sure  to 


2 


PREFACE 


reconstruct  the  Empire  ami  to  take  their  place  among  the 
leading  powers  of  the  civilized  world. 

Vliile  the  Manelni  rulers  have  made  grudging  conces- 
sions to  superior  force,  they  have  always,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Kuang  Hsu,  contrived  to  maintain  a  latent 
lK)stility  in  the  minds  of  their  people.  That  liostilily  has 
dinunished — strange  to  say — with  each  defeat  by  foreign 
powers,  and  it  almost  disappeared  during  the  reform 
movinieni  under  the  young  Emperor,  which  followed  the 
war  with  Japan. 

To  prevent  the  recurrence  of  outrages  it  is  necessary 
to  foster  a  fellow-feeling  with  the  rest  of  the  world.  As 
Captain  Malian  says:  "Toward  Asia  in  its  present  con- 
dition Europe  has  learned  that  it  has  a  community  of 
interest  that  may  be  defined  as  the  need  of  bringing  the 
Asian  peoples  v.  ithin  the  compass  of  the  family  of  Chris- 
tian States.  They  will  have  to  insist  that  currency  be 
permitted  to  our  id^as— hberty  to  exchange  thought  in 
Chinrsc  territory  ..ith  the  individual  Chinaman.  The 
open  door,  both  for  commerce  and  for  intellectual  inter- 
action, should  be  our  aim  everywhere  in  China." 

One  essential  to  this  intellectual  interaction  is  mutual 
intellectual  comprehension.  If  China  is  to  he  a  part  of 
the  family  of  civilized  Staf.'s — Chinese  thought,  the 
principles  ai  the  basis  of  Chinese  history  and  life  must 
he  uiKliTstood.  It  is  with  the  hope  that  this  may  be 
furthered  that  "  The  Lore  of  Cathay  '  is  offered  to  the 
Anglo-Saxon  public. 

W.  A.  P.  M. 

Peking,  July  ist. 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION 

iHE  Awakening  in  China   ^ 

BOOK  I 

CHINA  S  CONTRIBUTION  TO  ARTS  AND  SCIENCES 

I.  Chinese  Discoveries   ^3 

II.  Chinese    Speculations    in    Philosophy  and 

Science  .... 

 33 

III.  AixHEMY  ra  China;  the  Souece  or  Chemistby  .  44 

BOOK  II 
CHINESE  LITERATURE 

IV.  Poets  and  Poetky  of  China  . 
V.  The  CoNFuaAN  ArocRvpiiA 

VI.  CbNFuaus  AND  Plato— A  Coincidence 
V^II.  Chinese  Prose  Composition  . 
VIII.  Chinese  Letter  Writinc  . 

IX.  Chinese  Fables  

X.  Natwi  Tracts  of  China  . 


75 
87 
106 
III 
130 
144 
148 


BOOK  fir 

RELIGION  AND  PfllLOSOPIIY  OF  THE  CHINESE 
XI.  The  San  Chiao  ok  Thkee  Kelwions  of  China    .  165 
XII.  The  Ethicai.  Phoosophy  of  the  Chinese  .  .205 

3 


4  .  CONTENTS 


PACK 

XIII.  Chinese  Ideas  of  iNsriRATioN  234 

XIV.  PcmJiiisM  A  Pi<t:r.\K.\rin.\  kik  Christianity  .      .  349 
XV.  The  VVokship  of  Ancestors  in  China  ...  364 

BOOK  IV 
EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

XVI.  School  and  Family  Training  281 

XVII.  Civil  Servke  Examinations  .....  308 
XVin.  The  Impebial  Academy   339 

XIX.  An  Old  University  in  China  371 

BOOK  V 
STUDIES  IN  CHINESE  HISTORY 

XX.  The  Study  of  Chinese  History     ....  387 

XXI.  The  Tartars  in  Ancient  China    ....  409 

XXII.  International  Law  in  Ancient  China  ...  427 

XXHI.  DiaoiiACY  IN  Ancient  China   450 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Dr.  W.  A.  P.  Martin  Fronti.iiece 

FACING  PAGES 

President  Martin  and  Faculty  of  the  Chinese  Imperial  Uni- 
versity  ig 

Dr.  Martin  and  sonu>  of  his  Students  34 

Shrine  and  Temple  of  Confucius  88 

The  Temple  of  Heaven  l 
Tin-  Altar  of  1  fcavcn    .  ) 

Arcli  and  'i"eniplc  of  Confucius  200 

Gateway  of  Lania  Temple  240 

Buddhist  Monument  254 

The  Iniptrial  Anccstrai    Temple  274 

The  Watch-tower  in  Kxaminaiion  Grounds    .      .  ) 
Furnace  .for  buminR  paper  in  F.xamination  Grounds  J  *  "314 
Row  of  Cells  in  l^xaniination  Tnivervily      ....  326 
The  Imperial  Lecture  Room,  Old  University  .      .      .  ) 
Prospect  Hill  where  the  last  of  the  Mings  hanged  himself  ) 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


THE  AWAKENING  IN  CHINA 

FOR  a  long  tinu'  llu'  girint  of  tlie  East  lias  l)een 
rubbing  bis  c\i's.  Kacii  collision  witii  foreign 
po\v(  rs  has  had  the  effect  of  making  him  more 
conscious  of  his  helpless  condition  and  more  ready  to 
open  his  hds  to  the  light  of  a  new  day. 

Never  was  he  more  wide  awake  than  during  the  few 
years  following  the  ar  with  Japan,  when  the  young 
Emperor,  Kuang  Hsu,  attempted  to  make  his  reign  an 
era  of  reform.  The  coun'er-revohition  bronght  about 
by  the  Empress  nouager,*  aii<l  the  losniic  sli.n  k  by  which 
it  was  succeeded,  proved  the  strength  and  reality  of  the 
reform  movement.  So  far  from  extinguishing  that 
movement,  the  effect  of  this  convulsion  will  be  to  wake 
it  into  fresh  activity.  The  Chinese  people  may  be  ex- 
pected to  welcome  new  ideas  with  more  eagerness  than 
ever  before. 

This  proposition  will  be  received  with  distrust  by  some 
who  are  skeptical  as  to  the  doctrine  of  human  progress. 
It  will  be  questioned  by  others,  who  deride  as  visionary 
the  efforts  of  Christian  enterprise.  Nor  will  it  be  readily 
admitted  by  that  large  class  who  are  wont  to  regard  the 
Chinese  mind  as  hopelessly  incrusted  with  the  prejudices 
of  antiquity. 

*  Having  treated  that  subject  in  "  The  .Siege  in  Peking,"  it  is 
unnecessary  to  enlarge  upon  it  in  this  place. 

7 


8  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


Never  have  a  great  jKuple  been  more  misunderstood. 
They  are  denounced  as  stolid,  because  we  are  not  in  pos- 

session  of  a  nu  dium  siitTK  i(  ntly  traiis])arciU  to  convey  <nir 
ideas  to  them,  or  transmit  theirs  to  us;  and  stigmatized 
as  barbarians,  because  we  want  the  breadth  to  comprehend 
a  civilization  diffennt  fmin  dur  own.  They  are  repre- 
sented as  servile  imitaiors,  tliough  they  have  borrowed 
less  than  any  other  iRdjile;  as  destitute  of  the  inventive 
faculty,  though  the  wurhl  is  ini!el)ted  to  thetii  for  a  long 
cataloiriie  of  the  most  useful  discoveries;  and  as  clinging 
with  uiuiucstioning  tenacity  to  a  heritage  of  traditions, 
though  they  have  passed  tiirough  many  and  profound 
changes  in  the  course  of  their  history. 

Nothing  has  done  so  nnieh  to  lower  them  in  our  esteem 
and  to  exclude  them  from  our  sympathies  as  the  atrocities 
of  the  I'.oxer  outbreak,  'i'hat,  however,  was  the  efifect  of 
a  sudden  recoil,  stirred  up  for  political  purposes  by  a 
usurping  Regent  and  her  Manchu  agents.  Foreigners 
themselves,  they  were  jealous  of  anything  that  tends  to 
<iisturb  the  repose  of  the  Chinese  mind,  or  to  strengthen 
the  foothold  of  other  foreigners.  Exasperated,  too,  by  a 
series  of  encroachments  on  their  territory,  they  gave  way 
\o  a  mad  fury  that  provet'  -ontagious.  But  if  the  reign 
of  terror  was  the  renovat.on  of  France,  and  the  Sepoy 
mutiny  the  harhin^'er  of  better  thinf,'s  for  India,  why 
may  not  this  dreadful  drama  prove  to  be  the  birth-pangs 
of  a  new  China? 

That  China  is  not  incapable  of  reformation,  w(  sliall 
show  first  I)v  a  j^lance  at  changes  that  passed  over  the 
national  mind  prior  to  the  first  war  witli  England.  We 
shall  then  pass  in  review  the  steps  taken  in  the  way  of 
reform  in  the  course  of  the  next  fiftv  years.  Finally,  we 
shall  descrihe  in  outline,  the  reform  movement  under  the 
liniperor,  Kuang  Ilsu,  which  has  more  right  than  the 


THE  AWAKENING  IN  CHINA  9 


Boxer  craze  to  be  accepted  as  the  real  attitude  of  the 

Chinese  miml 

The  'Jhimse  liave  not  been  stationary,  as  generally  sup- 
posed, tiirough  the  long  past  of  their  national  life.  The 
national  iiiiml  lias  ailvaiu-cil  from  af^c  to  a^t-  v  ith  a  stately 
march;  not  indeed  always  in  a  direct  course,  hut  at  each 
of  its  great  epochs,  recording,  as  we  think,  a  decided  gain ; 
lilsi-  iht  (lawn  of  an  arctic  morning,  in  whiih  the  first 
blush  of  the  eastern  sky  disappears  for  many  hours,  only 
to  be  succeeded  by  a  brighter  glow,  growing  brighter  yet, 
after  each  interval  of  darkness,  as  the  time  of  sunrise 
approaches 

The  existence  in  such  a  country  of  such  a  thing  as  a 
national  mind  is  itself  an  evidence  of  a  susceptibility  to 
change;  and.  at  the  same  time,  a  guarantee  for  the  com- 
parative stability  of  its  institutions.  It  proves  that  China 
is  not  an  immense  congeries  of  polyps,  each  encased  in 
his  narrow  ciU,  a  workshop  and  a  tomh,  and  all  toil- 
ing on  without  the  stimulus  of  common  sympathy  or 
mental  reaction.  It  proves  that  China  is  not  like  Africa, 
and  aboriginal  .\mcrica.  or  even  like  British  India,  an 
assemblage  of  tribes  with  little  or  no  community  of  feel- 
ing. It  is  a  unit,  and  through  all  its  members  there 
sweeps  the  mighty  tide  of  a  common  life. 

In  the  progress  of  its  enormous  growth,  it  has  ab- 
sorbed many  a  heterogeneous  element,  which  has  always 
been  transformed  into  its  own  substance  by  an  assimila- 
tive power  that  asserts  the  marvelous  energy  of  the 
Chinese  civilization.  It  has,  too,  undergone  many  modi- 
fications, in  consequence  of  influences  operating  ab  extra 
as  well  as  from  within ;  and  though  the  process  of  trans- 
mission has  often  been  slow,  those  influences  have  al- 
ways extended  tu  the  whole  body.  Within  the  bounds 
of  China  proper,  there  is  no  such  thing  as  the  waves  of 


10  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


Buddhism  or  Taoism  ht  inj^  arrcsud  at  the  confines  of  a 
particular  province ;  nor  is  iliei  e  any  district  in  wliich  the 
pulsations  from  the  great  heart  t>f  ilif  empire  do  not.  by 
virtue  of  a  c(Mntnon  languagfe  and  common  feeling,  meet 
with  a  {M'Ompt  resi>oiise. 

Yet  the  existence  u£  this  oneness  and  sympathy, — this 
nationality  of  mind,  which  hrinRs  mo<lification»  on  a  vast 
scale  within  the  r;itii;o  nf  [k issihilitv,  iicx'ssaril;.-  iiilrr- 
poses  an  obstacle  in  the  way  of  tlieir  speedy  consumma- 
tion. Planted  on  the  deep  foundations  of  antiquity,  ex- 
tending over  so  wide  an  area,  ami  proudly  CDiiscious  of  its 
own  greatness,  its  very  inertia  is  opposed  to  change.  In 
Giina,  accordingly,  great  revolutions,  whether  political, 
religious,  or  intellectual,  have  always  been  slow  of  ac- 
complishment. Oimp.ired  with  the  facility  with  which 
these  are  brought  about  in  some  Occidental  countries, 
they  resemble  the  slow  revolution  of  those  huge  planets 
on  the  outskirts  of  the  solar  system,  which  require  more 
than  the  period  of  a  human  life  tu  make  the  circuit  of  the 
sun,  while  the  little  plan-t  Mercury  wheels  round  the 
center  once  in  three  months. 

Groat  dynastic  changes,  involving  as  they  do  a  period 
of  disintegration,  and  another  of  reconstruction,  have 
isually  occupied  from  one  to  three  generations,  while  the 
rowth  of  those  grand  revolutions,  which  resulted  in  the 
ascendency  of  a  religion  or  a  philosophy,  must  be  reck- 
oned by  ccnturiei*. 

A  brief  review  of  some  of  the  more  remarkable  changes 
that  have  occurred  in  the  progress  of  Chinese  civilization, 
will  enable  us  better  to  understand  the  nature  of  the  in- 
tellectual movement  now  going  on. 

To  begin  with  the  development  of  political  ideas.  In- 
stead of  being  wedded  to  a  uniform  system  of  despotic 
government,  the  Qiinese  have  lived  tinder  as  many  forms 


THE  AWAKENING  IN  CHINA  ii 


of  government  as  ancient  Rome  or  modern  France 
While  the  Romans  passed  under  their  kings,  consuls,  and 
emperors,  the  Chinese  had  their  tis.  their  ivangs,  and 
their  huang  tis.  And  as  IVann-  lias  passed  through  the 
various  phases  of  a  feudal  an  1  eeiitrali/cd  monarchy,  a 
military  despotism,  and  a  republic,  su  China  exhibits  an 
eqtial  variety  in  the  forms  of  her  civil  government. 

When  the  hand  of  history  first  lifts  the  curtain,  two 
thousand  years  before  the  Christian  era,  it  discloses  to 
us  an  elective  monarchy,  in  which  the  voice  of  the  peo- 
ple was  admitted  Id  express  flie  will  of  Heaven.  Thus, 
Yao,  the  model  monarch  ot  aniitiuity,  was  raised  to  the 
throne  by  the  voice  of  the  nobles,  in  lieu  of  his  elder 
brother,  who  was  set  aside  on  account  of  his  disorderly 
life.  Vao,  in  turn,  set  ar.ide  his  own  son,  and  called  on 
the  nobles  to  name  a  successor,  when  Shun  was  chosen. 
Again,  Shun,  passing  by  an  unworthy  son,  transmitted  the 
"yellow"  to  an  able  minister,  the  great  Yu. 

Yu,  ttough  a  good  sovereign,  departed  from  these  illus- 
trious precedents,  and  incurred  the  censure  of  "  convert- 
ing tlie  empire  into  a  family  estate."  The  hereditary 
principle  became  fixed.  Branches  of  the  imperial  family 
were  assigned  portions  of  the  empire,  and  their  dtjcend-  . 
ants  succeeding  to  their  principalities,  the  feudal  sy  -  ;m 
was  confirmed. 

This,  in  China,  is  the  classical  form  of  government,  but 
it  was  overthrown  completely  two  thousand  years  ago, 
by  one  of  the  most  sweeping  revolutions  on  the  records 
of  history.  Since  that  date,  China  has  been  a  consoli- 
dated monarchy,  living  in  complete  isolation;  without 
neighbors,  and  without  a  conception  of  international  inter- 
course. This  has  been  a  fruitful  source  of  conflict  with 
the  great  nations  of  the  West  and  East. 

Under  the  dynasty  of  Han,  about  the  commencement 


I  a  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


of  the  Christian  era,  a  still  more  important  modification 

was  introduced  into  tlie  constiliitioii  of  llio  oin])irc — viz., 
a  democratic  element,  in  virtue  of  which  appointments  to 
office  were  not  left  to  the  caprice  of  the  sovereign  and 
his  favorites.  This  ccnsisted  in  testing  the  rapacity  of 
candidates  by  a  literary  examination ;  and  it  operated  so 
well  that  it  was  not  only  adopted  but  greatly  improved 
by  succeeding  dynasties,  and  continues  in  force  at  the 
present  day.  The  Americans  would  as  soon  surrender 
their  ballot-box,  as  the  Chinese  that  noble  system  of  lit- 
erar\  competition,  which  makes  public  office  the  reward 
of  scliolarsllip,  and  gives  every  man  an  opportunity  of 
elevating  himself  by  his  own  exertions. 

Nor  are  the  Chinese  less  familiar  with  the  idea  of 
change  in  the  region  of  rehgious  tliouglit.  Three  s\  stetTis 
of  religion  iiave  appeared  on  llie  arena  of  the  empire,  and 
struggled  for  ascendency  since  the  sixth  century  before 
ihe  Christian  era.  Confucianism  was  persecuted  under 
the  dynasty  of  Ch  in ;  and  Taoism  and  Buddhism  alter- 
nately persecuting  and  persecuted,  kept  up  a  conflict  for 
ages,  each  in  turn  seating  its  own  disciples  on  the  throne 
of  the  empire.  The  last  of  these  is  of  foreign  origin; 
and  its  universal  prevalence  docs  much  to  reconcile  the 
people  to  the  introduction  of  religious  ideas  from  abroad ; 
while  it  stands  forth  as  a  visible  proof  of  the  possibility 
of  converting  the  Chinese  to  a  foreign  creed.  A  leading 
statesman"**  of  China  has  made  use  of  this  as  an  argu- 
ment to  show  that  the  emperor  should  not  object  to  tlie 
propagation  of  Christianity.  "  I'>om  the  time  of  Ch  in 
and  Han,"  he  says,  "the  doctrines  of  Confucius  began 
to  be  obscured,  and  tlie  religion  of  Buddha  spread.  Mow 
Buddhism  originated  in  India,  but  many  of  the  Hindus 
have  renounced  Buddhism  and  embraced  Mohammedan- 

*  Tseng  Kuo  Fan,  viceroy  of  Nanking. 


THE  AWAKENING  IN  CHINA  13 


ism.  The  Roman  Catliolic  faith  originated  in  the  West, 
but  some  nations  of  the  West  have  adopted  Protestantism, 
and  set  themselves  in  opposition  to  tlic  faith  of  Rome. 
Whence  we  see  that  other  religions  rise  and  fall  from 
age  to  age,  but  the  doctrine  of  Confucius  survives,  un- 
impaired throughout  all  ages."  The  writer  is  careful  to 
disavow  any  sympathy  for  Christianity,  and  he  by  no 
means  recommends  its  adoption :  but  he  wishes  to  assure 
I  lis  .Majesty  that  there  is  no  serious  evil  to  he  appre- 
luiidcd  even  if  Christianity  should  succeed  in  supplanting? 
buddhism,  as  long  as  the  people  adhere  to  the  cardinal 
doctrines  of  their  ancient  sage.  It  is  a  great  thing  for  the 
kading  minds  to  acknowledge  the  possibility  of  a  change 
even  in  this  hypothetical  form. 

Aside  from  these  religious  revolutions,  and  altogether 
distinct  from  them,  ire  several  periods  of  intellectual 
awakening,  that  constitute  marked  epochs  in  the  history 
of  literature. 

The  first  of  these  was  occasioned  by  the  teachings  of 
Confucius,  .\nother  occurred  in  the  time  of  Mencius, 
a  century  later,  when  the  ethical  basis  of  the  school  under- 
went a  searching  revision,  the  great  question  of  the  orij.;!- 
iial  goodness  or  depravity  of  human  nature  beinj;  dis- 
cussed with  acuteue.ss  and  power.  A  third  and  more 
powerful  awakening  took  place,  when  the  classic  books 
which  Lu  Clients:  had  hurncd,  rose,  pin  eni\--!ike,  from  their 
ashes,  or  to  speak  more  correctly,  issued,  Minerva-like, 
from  the  retentive  brain  of  those  venerable  scholars  who 
had  committed  them  to  memory  in  their  early  boyhood. 

This  was  the  age  of  criticism;  the  very  circumstances 
which  roused  the  national  mind  to  activity,  directed  its 
efforts  to  the  settlement  of  the  text  of  their  ancient 
records.  But  it  did  not  stop  here.  -Slips  of  haniboo,  and 
tablets  of  wood,  the  clumsy  materials  of  ancient  books, 


»4 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


gave  place  to  linen,  silk,  and  paper.  The  convenience 
and  elegance  of  the  material  contributed  to  multiply  books 
and  to  stimulate  literary  labor 

Cut  the  grandest  of  all  tlic  revivals  of  learning,  was, 
as  might  be  expected,  that  which  ensued  on  the  discovery 
of  the  art  of  printing.  In  the  period  above  referred  to, 
about  A.  D.  177.  \].L-  revised  texl  nf  the  sacred  books  was 
engravid  on  tablets  of  stone,  by  ^'  .perial  order,  as  a  pre- 
caution to  secure  it  against  the  danger  of  another  con- 
flagration. Impressions  must  have  I)een  taken  from  these, 
and  iiie  art  of  printing  thu  practiced  to  a  limited  ex- 
tent at  that  early  date ;  but  it  was  not  till  the  eighth  cen- 
tury that  it  came  into  general  use  for  the  manufacture  of 
books. 

It  was  not  so  much  the  augmented  rate  of  production 
that  marked  this  .  poch,  as  the  improved  character  of  its 
original  literature.  This  was  eminently  the  age  of  po- 
etry ;  when  Li  Tai  Po,  and  Tu  Fu,  and  a  whole  constella- 
tion of  lesser  lights  rose  above  tiie  horizon.  The  Poems 
of  T'ang  arc  still  recognized  as  forming  the  text-books 
of  standard  poetry. 

This  period  was  succeeded  by  another  in  the  reign  of 
the  Sung  dynasty  (960-1.  79),  when  the  mind  of  China 
exhibited  itself  in  a  ucw  development.  It  became  seized 
with  a  mania  for  philosophical  speculation,  and  grap- 
])k(l  with  the  deepest  questii  r,--  of  ontology.  Choutze, 
Lhengtzc,  and,  above  all,  the  faiiious  Chu  Hsi,  distin- 
guished themselves  by  the  penetrating  subtlety  and  the 
daring  freedom  of  their  inquiries.  Professing  to  eluci- 
date the  ancient  philosu[)hy,  tbcv  in  reali  <  unded  a  new 
one — a  school  of  pantheistic  materialisn.  \wiioh  has  con- 
tinued dominant  to  the  present  hour. 

The  last  two  dynasties  have  not  beon  unfruitful  in  the 
products  of  the  intellect;  indeed,  there  seems  to  be  no 


THE  AWAKENING  IN  CHINA  15 


end  or  abatement  to  the  teeming  fertility  of  the  Chinese 
mind.     Less  daringly  original  than  in  the  preceding 

period,  it  has  yet,  under  each  of  these  dynasties,  appeared 
in  a  new  style — the  writers  of  the  Ming  being  distin- 
guished for  masculine  energy  of  expression,  and  those  of 
the  'i'a  Ch'int^  for  graceful  elegance. 

Enough  has  been  said  to  show  that  the  Chinese  have 
not  maintained  through  all  the  ages  that  character  of 
cast-iron  uniformity  so  generally  ascribed  to  them. 
Worshipers  of  antiquity,  they  certainly  are,  and  strongly 
onservative  in  their  mental  tendencies;  but  they  have 
not  been  content,  as  is  too  commonly  supposed,  to  hand 
down  from  the  earliest  times  a  small  stock  of  crystallized 
ideas  without  increase  or  modification.  The  germs  of 
their  civilization,  hke  those  of  any  civilization  worth  pre- 
serving, are  not  precious  stones  to  be  kept  in  a  casket, 
but  seeds  to  be  cultivated  and  improved.  In  fact,  modi- 
fications have  taken  place  on  an  extensive  scale,  foreign 
elements  have  from  time  to  time  been  engrafted  on  the 
native  root,  and  the  native  scholar,  as  he  follows  back 
the  pathway  of  history,  fails  to  discover  anything  like 
uniformity  or  constancy,  e.  cept  in  a  few  of  the  most 
fundamental  principles.  The  doctrine  of  filial  piety,  car- 
ried to  the  [)oint  of  religious  devotion,  exten  like  a 
golden  thread  through  all  the  ages,  as  the  foundation  of 
family  ties  and  social  order;  wl;ile  the  principle  of  the 
divine  origin  of  government,  administered  by  one  man 
as  the  representative  of  Heaven,  and  modified  by  the 
corresponding  doctrine  that  the  will  of  Heaven  is  ex- 
pressed in  the  will  of  the  people,  is  found  alike  in  every 
period,  as  the  basis  of  their  civil  institutions. 

Though  not  so  much  given  to  change  as  tiicir  more 
mercurial  antipodes,  it  is  still  true  that  the  constant 
factors  of  their  civilization  have  been  few,  and  the  varia- 


i6  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


ble  ones  many.  Bold  innovations  and  radical  revolutions 
rise  to  view  all  along  in  the  retrospect  of  their  far-reach- 
ing [last,  and  prc'iiare  tlicin  to  anticipate  the  same  for  the 
future.  With  such  antecedents,  and  such  a  character  for 
intellectual  activity,  it  would  be  next  to  impossible  that 
they  should  not  lie  profoundly  afTccted  hy  their  contacts 
and  collisions  with  the  civilization  of  Christendom. 

In  point  of  fact  the  impression  was  profound,  though 
it  was  not  immediately  apparent.  For  over  half  a  cen- 
tury the  W  est  liad  l)een  actiiii:^  on  C  liiiia  Iiy  the  comhined 
influence  of  its  arms,  its  commerce,  its  religion,  and  its 
science.  Some  of  these  influences  commenced  to  operate 
at  a  mucli  earlier  date,  an<l  their  effects  were  hy  no  means 
insignilicani.  ilut  of  late  years  all  of  them  have  been 
combined  with  an  oxyhydrogen  blow-pipe  intensity,  that 
one  would  think  sufTieient  to  melt  a  mountain  of  ada- 
mant. They  could  not,  in  the  nature  of  things,  have  been 
brought  to  hear  on  China  so  effectively  at  any  earlier 
period  on  account  of  her  geographical  isolation.  The  na- 
tions of  the  \\  est  were  too  remote  to  cause  solicitude  ;  but 
when  steamships  and  the  citting  of  the  Isthmus  brought 
tiicm  nearer,  and  when  in  two  wars  they  displayed  their 
ability  to  beat  her  in  every  hattle,  they  taught  her  a  les- 
son, without  which  all  attempts  to  benefit  the  Chinese 
must  have  proved  like  irrigating  the  side  of  a  mountain 
t    [projecting  water  from  its  base. 

The  effect  was  immediate.  The  Chinese  were  for  the 
first  time  convinced  that  they  had  something  to  learn. 
Within  less  than  a  year  from  the  close  of  ho.stilities  in 
i860,  large  bodies  of  Chinese  troops  might  have  been  seen 
learning  foreign  tactics  under  foreign  drill-masters,  on 
the  verv  battle  grounds  where  they  had  been  defeated. 
Arsenals,  well  supplied  with  machinery  from  foreign 
countries,  were  put  in  operation  at  four  important  points, 


THE  AWAKENING  IN  CHINA  17 


and  Navy  Yards  were  established  at  two  principal  sea- 
ports, where  native  mechanics  were  taught  the  construc- 
tion of  steam  gun-boats. 

Such,  in^leL■d,  was  tlieir  proficiency  in  the  arts  of  war, 
that  they  supposed  themselves  able  to  cope  with  a  first- 
class  power,  until  the  war  with  Japan  dispelled  the  illu- 
sion. 

Nor  was  education  in  other  lines  wholly  neglected.  A 
school  for  the  training  of  interpreters  was  opened  in  Can- 
ton, and  a  similar  school  established  in  the  Capital.  It  is 
significant  of  the  animus  of  the  ruling  race  that  in  both 
schools  the  students  were  exclusively  drawn  from  the 
Tartar  tribes,  or  from  Chinese  whose  families  had  hcvn 
adopted  into  the  Manchu  race  in  the  age  of  the  conquest. 
The  government  was  not  desirous  of  extending  the  bene- 
fits of  the  tu  w  education  to  its  Chinese  subjects.  One 
Manchu  statesman  there  was,  with  sounder  views  and 
greater  breadth — Wen  Hsiang,  the  enlightened  chief  of 
the  Hoard  of  Foreign  AfTairs.  He  induced  the  throne  to 
open  the  doors  of  the  College  to  Chinese  who  were  high- 
class  graduates  in  letters ;  but  the  haughty  graduates  de- 
clined to  enter.  Wojin,  the  Emperor's  teacher,  de- 
nounced the  proposal  to  have  her  learned  doctors  sit  at 
the  feet  of  foreigners  as  derogatory  to  the  dignity  of 
China.  Being  at  the  head  of  the  Imperial  Academy,  he 
encouraged  the  Ilanlins  in  their  opposition  to  such  an 
itmovation.  L'nahle  to  reach  the  higher  literati,  Wen 
Hsiang  had  to  content  himself  with  recruits  from  lower 
grades.  The  number  of  scholarships  was  raised  from 
thirty  to  one  hundred  and  twenty,  and  the  cui  riculum  en- 
larged to  embrace  a  liberal  course  in  sciences  and  arts, 
as  well  as  languages.  The  Imperial  T'ung  Wen  College 
became  an  important  factor  in  helping  forward  the  cause 
of  progress. 


i8  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

Sonic  of  its  sttiaems  fmin.l  cniplmnu-nt  in  schools  and 
arsenals.  Many  of  tlicni  were  aUachcd  to  embassies  in 
forcij;n  parts,  and  two  of  them  had  the  .listin^ruished 
honcr  of  hccominj;  tutors  h,  l-ii-Iish  to  His  Majesty,  the 
iMiip.  ror,  ihcn  in  liis  caiiv  minority,  instead  of  prmlcd 
l„.ok>.  thev  were  re<iuire<i  to  place  in  the  hands  of  their 
Imperial  pupil,  a  su  ics  of  lessons  written  out  in  l.eauti- 
fii!  manuscript.  Tlu-o  tlicv  always  brought  to  me  tu  be 
sure  that  they  were  crrect.  I  may  here  mention  that 
my  first  appointment  in  cnnncction  with  the  T'un-  W  <  n 
College,  was  the  char^^e  of  a  class  of  boys,  ten  in  number, 
who  were  studying  luiKlish.  .\ftcr  a  short  time,  I  pro- 
posed to  give  up  the  charge.  An  aged  minister,  who  had 
the  oversight  of  the  school,  inqnirin-  mv  reason  for  re- 
signing. I  told  him  1  thought  the  business  too  small 
for  me. 

"  Don't  call  it  small."  he  said,  "  some  of  your  students 
may  vet  become  teachers  of  the  Emperor." 

Needless  to  sav.  this  argument  proved  conclusive;  not 
only  was  his  prophesv  with  reference  to  the  suulcnts  ful- 
filled a  prediction  which  he  had  a  -good  deal  to  do  m 
fumiling,  l)ut.  in  the  further  enlargement  of  the  institu- 
tion, I  was  appointed  to  the  ['residency  in  connection  with 
the  Chair  of  International  Law,  a  two-fold  position,  which 
1  continued  to  hold  for  twenty-tive  years,  until  ill-health 
compelled  mv  resignation. 

Our  students,  who  went  abroad  in  connection  with  em- 
bassies, were  some  of  them  interpreters,  some  secretari"« 
some  consuls  and  vice-consuls,  while  one  or  two  even  ) 
to  the  dignity  of  minister  plenipotentiary:  notably  was 
this  the  case  with  Mr.  Ching  Chang,*  late  minister  ' 
France. 

♦  The  Into  Marquis  Tsenp,  Minister  to  Engl.   1  'hough  not  ,i 

ftu.Kiit  .  f  i!"-  C-lU'iio.  tnnk  ,,rivate  les^^ons  from  and  always 
nianilVstnl  l.nv.irds  mo  the  rc-i-cct  due  to  a  v 


THE  AWAKENING  IN  CHINA  19 


The  embassies  tlicmselvcs  must  not  be  overlooked  as 
an  educational  agency.  Each  minister  and  his  suite  re- 
garded themselves  as  on  a  mission  of  exploration.  Some- 
times the  minister  embodied  his  observations  in  a  set  of 
volumes.  More  frequently  their  secretaries  published  an 
account  of  their  travels.  These  publications,  nut  being 
pigeon-holed  like  dthcial  reports,  had  the  effect  of  doing 
much  to  awaken  the  reading  class. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  enterprises  of  that  age  was 
the  educational  mission  originated  by  Mr.  Yung  Wing, 
a  graduate  and  doctor  of  laws  of  Yale  University.  By 
him  and  his  successors,  about  three  hundred  picked  youth 
were  led  to  Hartford  for  training  in  every  branch  of 
knowledge  that  could  make  them  useful  to  their  country. 
The  mission  was,  as  I  have  elsewhere  stated,  finally  re- 
called, because  it  was  thought  these  yoUng  men  were 
learning  too  much. 

The  efforts  hitherto  made  in  this  direction,  were  mainly 
official,  and  intended  for  the  use  of  the  Government. 
They  were  feeble  in  comparison  with  the  strength  of  the 
movement  which  followed  on  the  war  with  Japan.  The 
first  effect  of  defeat  was  to  excite  earnest  inquiry  as  to 
the  cause  of  China's  humiliation.  Those  haughty  schol- 
ars, the  members  of  the  Hanlin,  who  had  disdained  to 
enter  the  T  ung  Wen  College,  now  became  convinced  that 
the  Japanese  were  victorious  because  a  now  education  had 
supplied  them  with  new  sources  of  power.  They  began 
the  organization  of  reform  clubs  in  the  capital  and 
throughout  the  empire,  in  many  places.  They  sought  the 
advice  of  missionaries,  such  as  Dr.  Allen,  the  Rev.  Tim- 
othy Richard,  and  the  Rev.  Gilbert  Reid.  They  were  en- 
couraged by  Viceroys  and  Governors.  The  Great  Vice- 
roy. Chang  Chih  Tung  published  a  book  to  stimulate  the 
movement,  showing  that  a  change  of  base  for  the  educa- 
tional system  is  "  Qiina's  Only  Hope." 


10 


THE  LORK  OK  CATHAY 


In  1897,  the  eminent  C'antnnise  m  hnlnr.  Kant^  \u  Wei, 
went  to  the  capital  to  compete  fnr  a  pkuo  in  the  Imperial 
Academy.  He  won  for  himself  a  more  distinguished 
position  by  petlini^  the  ear  of  t!ie  I'mpemr.  Deejily 
penetrated  with  tiie  convulion  that  C  hina'.s  .satety  re- 
quired her  to  imitate  the  example  of  Japan,  he  fired  the 
mind  of  the  Kmpemr  witli  t  iithtisiasm  to  be  the  leader  of 
his  people  in  the  j)atli  uf  reform 

The  Emperor  issued  a  series  of  decrees,  all  commend- 
ing themseKfs  to  !ht-  judj^nient  of  rt'asonalile  men,  hut 
fraught  with  the  spirit  of  innovation,  lie  proi)osed,  in- 
stead of  choosing  the  emi)loyees  of  the  g  iwrnment  as  the 
result  .if  ,1  cniniiciitiMii  iu  oi nami iital  handwriting  and 
verse  making,  to  have  iheni  examined  in  sciences  and 
practical  arts.  With  this  in  view,  he  ordered  the  estab- 
lishment of  common  schools,  for  which  the  idol  temples 
in  the  provinces  were  to  he  tlinnvn  open,  an  act  regarded 
by  his  people  as  equivalent  to  eonti.scation.  He  also  or- 
dered the  creation  of  upper  schools  and  colleges  in  the 
provinces,  and  estahlifhcd  a  l'niversit\  in  the  capital, 
svhicn  .should  gather  in  tiie  provincial  graduates  and  train 
them  for  the  service  of  the  state.  The  writer  was  called 
to  the  I'rcsidcticy  of  (his  iii'-i itntidii.  It  had  hi  cit  In  op- 
eration for  two  years  with  a  corps  of  ten  foreign  profes- 
sors, and  twelve  native  assistants,  niostlv  Christian  grad- 
uates of  mission  schools,  when  its  nurations  were  brought 
to  a  standstill  hy  the  I'.oxer  outbreak. 

That  temporary  madness  which  showed  itself  in  the 
burning  of  the  Ilanlin  Library,  the  dcst ruction  by  fire  of 
the  richest  sections  of  the  cajiital,  and  tiic  dcstructitiii 
by  water  of  the  library  of  our  University,  is  sure  to  have 
the  effect  of  giving  a  fresh  impetus  to  the  cause  of  edu- 
cational reform. 


BOOK  I 


China's  Contribution  to  Arts  an 


CHINESE  DISCOVERIES 


HAT  a  j)cn|)li-  wliosr  history  runs  l)ack  almost  as 


far  as  that  of  Egypt,  and  whose  continuity  lias 


^  been  far  less  distiirluHl  by  foreign  lonijiust, 
sliould  hit  on  many  useful  diMUvirics  is  not  In  lie  won- 
dered at.  Thi'  wundiT  is  tli.it  so  link'  pains  have  been 
taken  to  point  out  tiie  extent  of  our  iudehtediuss  to  the 
ancient  civilization  of  the  Far  l-.ast.  In  many  instances 
our  ohlij^afinus  can  he  provi'n.  hi  others,  where  the  evi- 
dence is  not  conclusive,  the  fact  of  priority  creates  a  pre- 
sumption in  favor  of  the  Chinese.  The  channel  of  trans- 
mission mav  not  he  easy  to  detect ;  hut  ttierc  is  no  doubt 
that  such  existed  even  prior  to  the  records  of  history, 
just  as  the  ocean  throbs  with  a  common  pulse,  and  secret 
currents  connect  its  distant  shores. 

It  miliht  be  iliflicult  to  show  that  the  (  hinese  are  distin- 
guished for  inventive  talent,  but  inteili-e.it  and  practical 
as  they  are,  it  is  inevitable  that  in  the  course  of  ages 
they  should  accumulate  a  considerab.  •  stock  of  arts  and 
of  the  rudiments  of  science.  They  are  not  wanting  in 
originality,  the  political  and  social  system  under  which 
we  meet  them  at  the  dawn  of  history  is  oin  inusly  of 
native  origin,  and  the  traveler  even  at  the  present  day  is 
struck  by  the  peculiar  methods  of  the  Chinese  in  much 
that  goes  to  make  up  their  material  civilization. 

We  shall  call  attention  chiefly  (but  not  exclusively),  to 
such  discoveries  and  inventions  as  have  made  their  way 
to  the  western  world. 


24  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

The  author  of  the  Liao  Chai,  a  popular  story  book 
compiled  about  two  i-entiiries  ago,  <ksorilH  s  -a  tuhc  into 
wliicli  :i  messagf  niijiht  be  spoken  and  conveyed  lu  a  dis- 
tant place,  when  on  the  removal  of  a  seal  the  words 
become  audible.  I  am  not  ooing  to  champion  Chiang 
Hsien-shcng  against  Mr.  luli-.n,  as  the  inventor  of  a  pho- 
nograph. His  specitications  are  too  few  and  vague  -o 
pass  muster  in  our  patent  office.  Likr  luaux  amuipa- 
tory  hints  to  he  fmmd  in  the  literature  ut  ntlur  c.mntnes 
this  fanciful  outline  seems  rather  to  indicate  the  con- 
sciousness of  a  want  than  to  show  the  way  in  which  the 
problem  was  to  he  solved. 

Discarding  fancv.  we  shall  confine  ourselves  to  sohu 
ground,  and  after  vind-cafing  for  the  Chinese  the  honor 
of  discovery  in  two  or  tliree  iinp.jrtaiit  arts,  we  shall  indi- 
cate in  a  few  words  what  they  have  done  in  the  less  famil- 
iar domain  of  science, 

I.  I.  Gunpowder,  which  Sir  Janus  Mackintosh 
brackets  together  with  i.nnting  as  securing  our  civilization 
against  anotiier  irruption  of  barbarians,  is,  in  my  opinion, 
to  be  set  to  the  credit  of  the  Chinese.  The  honor  is  con- 
tested by  English.  C.crniai'  -Xiah  and  Hindu;  nor  is  it 
impossible  that  the  discovery  may  have  been  made  mde- 
pendentlv  bv  each.  Its  ingre.lients.  sulphur,  nitre  and 
carbon,  were  in  constant  use  hv  alrluniiM-^,  .md  it  was 
inevitable  that  the  explosive  force  of  the  co..ip..und  should 
be  found  out  if  only  bv  accident-especially  as  no  fixed 
proportion  is  required.  The  first  to  meet  with  tins  happy 
accident  would  b.e  the  Chinese,  who  were  the  hrst  experi- 
menters in  the  field  of  alchemy.* 

The  pretentions  of  Schwartz  and  Roger  P.acon  n.  ed  not 
be  discussed  r,n  account  of  their  comparatively  recent 
date.    As  for  the  Arabs,  they  were  transmitters,  not 
•  See  chapter  HI. 


CHINESE  DISCOVERIES 


25 


invent,  ir-;  The  only  lH:ople  who  can  seriously  compete 
,viih  llie  C  hinese  arc  the  Hindus.  Their  knowledge  of 
Punpowder  is  certum.  of  trreat  antiquity,  but  their 
ancient  dates  are  liUlcult  to  i,:..  <1  the  balance  of  evi- 
dence as  to  priorit   i  ppears  i.o  be  -x  favor  of  China. 

One  of  the  weii  1  >>t  dociime  .ts  bearing  on  the  ques- 
tion is  a  paper  set  for  a  niUr-ToHtan  exammation  about 
twentv  N.  ars  atjo.  The  answers  given  by  the  candidates 
woulci  be  of  little  worth;  but  the  facts  stated  or  assumed 
in  the  questions  are  of  great  value,  emanating  as  they  do 
fr(,ni  tlu  chief  examiner,  one  of  th^  most  learned  men  m 
tlie  Empire. 

•'  Fire-arms  began  with  the  use  of  rockets  in  the  dy- 
nasty of  Chou  (B.  c.  1122-255)— in  what  book  do  we 
first  meet  with  the  word  p'ao,  now  used  for  cannon.''  " 

"  Is  the  defense  of  Kai  Feng  Fu  agaiiist  the  Mongols 
(1232)  the  first  recorded  use  of  cannon?" 

"  The  Sun-  dynasty  (.v.  D.  960-1278)  had  several  vari- 
eties of  small  guns— what  were  their  advantages?" 

These  three  (jucstions  all  relate  to  fire-arms.  They 
imply  an  explosive,  but  it  <loes  n..t  fallow  that  such  ex- 
plosive was  always  eniploNed  to  discharge  projectiles. 
Indeed  the  rockets  referred  to  can  scarcely  be  reckoned 
as  proj.-ctiles.  being  used  for  signals  or  for  festive  display, 
rather  than  as  weapons  of  war.  The  famous  siege  re- 
ferred to  in  the  second  question  was  more  than  a  'vm- 
dred  years  earlier  than  th-  first  incontestable  use  of 
cannon  in  Europe  (1338). 

If  wo  turn  to  the  Ko  Chich  Citing  Yuan.  "  The  Mirror 
of  Research  the  best  Chinese  authority  on  the  subject 
of  invention,  we  obtain  a  little  light  on  the  transition  from 
signal   rockets   to   fire-arms   properly   so-called.  The 


26  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


author  cites  an  aiu  icnt  Imok  to  tlie  effect  that  in  998  a.  d. 
oiu-  TanpT  I'l'  i)r()(hui(l  a  r  n  kit  of  a  new  styU"  liavinLT  a 
head  of  iron, — proof  that  ii  was  not  intoniloil  for  a  mere 
signal  or  a  feu  de  joie.  He  also  cites  another  hook  which 
relates  that  in  a.  h.  1131  a  iiiraiical  llort  nn  llu-  River 
Yangtze  was  dcslroyeii  hy  a  "  tiannier  htmil)",  .secretly 
sent  among  the  shi{)s.  The  totnl)  made  of  paper  was 
filled.  lie  >ays,  with  ^nliiluir  and  i(iiii'klinK'.  As  it  rose  to 
the  sky  witli  a  report  like  thunder,  it  must  have  been 
launched  from  a  mortar  by  the  force  of  gunpowder. 

lie  further  (|U(ites  a  siateiiuiU  that  at  a  dale  nnt  men- 
tioned, hut  earlier  than  the  tlefense  of  Kai  I'"eng  In:  the 
walls  of  Hsi  An,  the  ancient  capital,  were  provided  with 
cannon  which  went  niT  with  a  report  that  could  be  heard 
tliirtv  miles  and  sjircid  Hames  over  half  an  acre  The 
balls  or  homhs  t'ur  these  guns  were  made  of  iron,  but 
porcelain  was  also  used. 

(lonhel.  cited  h\  Pauthier.  says  that  cammn  throwing 
stones  were  used  in  the  defi'nse  of  T'ai  \'uan,  .\.  d.,  767, 
and  that  mines  were  employ e^l  He  says  no  explosive  is 
mentioned  hy  the  native  author,  its  existence  being  taken 
as  well-known. 

2.  China's  claim  to  the  discovery  of  the  Mariner's 
Compass  is  uncontested.  The  mai^net  was  known  at  an 
early  epoch  to  both  (ireeks  and  i'",gyptians ;  the  former 
gave  it  its  name,  and  the  latter,  according  to  Plutarch, 
employed  it  as  a  symbol  for  a  good  man  who  not  only 
attracts  others  hut  |)ossesses  the  power  of  imparting  his 
virtues.  Vet  the  first  to  observe  its  directive  jiroperties 
were  the  Chinese.  By  them  the  polarity  of  the  neeiUe 
was  utilizeii  lonq;  before  tlie  Christian  era.  Some  of 
their  books  assert  that  it  was  use<l  to  guide  war-chariots 
across  a  desert  as  early  as  2600  b.  c,  but  the  war  is 
legendary  and  the  assertion  groundless.    More  within 


CHINESE  DISCOVERIES 


ran^e  is  their  tinvarj'in^  stafement,  that  magnetic  needles 

were  f^iviii  to  luiiliassadors  frum  a  southern  country  to 
enable  them  to  fir.  1  tlieir  way  liomc,  iioo  b.  c.  Those 
ambassadors  came  jy  land,  and  from  its  use  in  their 
vtln\l(  s  the  compass  came  to  be  describctl  as  Chih  nan 
chit,  a  "Suuth-pointing  chariot."  A  curious  illustration 
of  that  primitive  application  of  the  needle  may  be  seen  any 
d.u  in  a  small  compass  suspended  in  the  sedan  or  cart  of 
a  .Mandarin. 

The  use  of  the  needle  at  sea  follows  as  a  matter  of 
course.  The  Chinese  employed  it  in  coasting  voyages  as 
early  as  the  fifth  century  .\.  d.,  ami  it  is  p'-nliahU-  that 
their  junks  as  well  as  their  land  carriages  were  provided 
with  it  long  before  that  date.  Its  use  was  known  in 
Europe  as  early  as  the  twelfth  century,  and  pos.sibly  much 
earlier,  the  crusades,  wliich  mingled  all  nations,  liaving 
served  to  jirnpagate  the  arts  of  the  East — but  it  was  slow 
in  coming  into  vogue.  In  the  bold  hands  of  Columbus 
three  centuries  later  it  pointed  the  way  to  a  new  world. 
Yet  Vasco  da  Gama  seems  to  have  made  little  or  no  use  of 
it  in  his  v  >yage  to  lu<lia  in  1497,  which  was  in  fact  a 
coasting  vo\ai;<'  all  the  way.  Canntcns  in  his  ])oftica! 
narrative  Os  Liisiiulas,  though  he  praises  the  astrolabe 
and  is  ever  on  the  alert  for  things  mar\'ellous  and  strange, 
makes  no  allusion  to  the  needle. 

3.  That  (jutenherg's  invention  of  printing  was 
prompted  by  the  knowledge  that  something  similar  existed 
in  China  is  next  to  certain.  For  seven  Inuidred  vears 
the  art  had  been  practiced  there,  not  in  secret  as  he  and 
Faustus  practiced  it,  but  as  a  great  popular  industry. 
Its  origin  is  remarkahle  .\  tyrant,  deterniiued  to  uproot 
the  principles  of  Confucius,  hurned  the  IhilK.  if  the  Sage. 
They  were  restored  partly  from  memor\.  pariK  from  im- 
perfect copies  found  hidden  in  the  wall  of  a  house.  The 


28  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


Emperor  Tai  Tsunp,  (  a.  d.  627)  resolved  that  the  sacred 

iii'ii  i  iiaiice  slioukl  ih'N'it  iij^ain  l)e  rxiH),->>,  '  to  destruction 
!)\-  tire,  caused  the  \»">k^  tn  !ie  eii^i.ued  stone.  That 
stunc  library  is  still  extant.  .V  hundred  and  seventy  slal)S 
of  granite  bearing  on  their  faces  tlie  tex*  of  the  thirteen 
classics  may  still  lu-  sieii  .it  !Isi  ,\n  l"!i,  and  a  moilern  imi- 
tation uf  it  stands  in  the  old  Confucian  University  at 
Peking. 

X(i  sooner  was  that  Imperial  eilititni  cuinpleted  than 
tlie  idea  occurred  of  making  it  accessible  to  scholars  in 
all  parts  of  the  country  by  means  of  rubbings.  That  was 
printing;.  Nor  in  China  has  the  form  of  that  art  greatly 
chan";ed  in  the  lapse  of  a  thousand  years.  Wood  has 
been  substituted  for  stone  and  rclin-o  for  intai^liu,  mak- 
ing the  page  white  instead  of  black,  but  tlie  impressions 
are  still  rubbings,  made  with  a  soft  brush  and  without  the 
use  of  a  press. 

From  the  invention  of  block  printing  it  was  not  long 
until  attemi)ts  were  ni.aile  to  print  with  divisibk-  type,  iiut 
they  failed  to  supersede  the  primitive  method,  the  Chinese 
not  having  hit  on  that  happy  alloy  known  as  "  printers' 
metal."  It  is  not  necessary  to  suppose  that  Chinese  type 
of  wood,  copper  or  Icrra  cotta  found  their  way  to  May- 
ence;  the  smallest  fragment  of  printed  paper  carried  in  a 
China  vase  or  rn'l  ..f  <i!k  would  be  sufficient  to  suggest 
the  whole  art  to  a  mind  like  that  of  Gutenberg. 

4.  The  art  of  making  porcelain  i_  so  obviously  Chi- 
nese in  its  origin  that  porcelain  continues  to  bear  the 
name  of  China  ware. 

5.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  manufacture  of  silk. 
The  name  is  somewhat  disguised,  hut  it  is  obviously  de- 
riveil  from  Seres  the  Latin  fur  Chinese,  through  tlie  .-id- 
jective  u-ricnni,  which  dropping  the  final  svlk-ible  In  comes 
seric-silk,  i.  e.,  China  stuff.  I  need  not  push  the  argument 


CHINESE  DISCOVERIES 


90  far  as  to  assert  that  scr  is  CliiiKSf  for  silkworm; 
thougli  tliat  (krivatinn  is  not  witliout  plausibility.  In 
the  making  of  paptT,  not  only  were  the  Chinese  far  in 
advance  of  us — they  preceded  us  in  the  special  art  of  pro- 
ducing it  from  wood  pulp.  Paper  was  invented  liv  C'liina 
about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era ;  but  for  many 
centuries  preceding  their  books  were  engraved  on  slips  of 
bamboo  with  the  point  of  a  stile. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  arts  originating  in  China  seem 
to  require  transplanting  in  order  to  attain  a  higher  de- 
veldimient.  Witness  the  marvellous  iniprovenienls  ma<!e 
in  the  app'"cation  of  gunpowder,  printing  and  the  mari- 
ner's compass.  This  may  be  due  to  an  inborn  conservatism 
which  makes  the  Chinese  reluctant  to  alter  the  methods 
approved  by  their  fathers. 

II.  The  same  observation  may  be  made  in  regard  to 
their  cssa\s  in  the  field  of  science.  Ideas  which  in  their 
native  s  -il  have  remained  stunted  ami  deformed  yield  a 
rich  fruitage  under  a  more  genial  sky. 

1.  Notably  is  this  the  case  with  Alchemy,*  which  in 
the  western  world  has  expanded  into  a  vast  body  of  sci- 
ence which,  in  no  mean  sense,  fulfils  its  promise  of  trans- 
muting baser  elements  into  gold.  In  its  native  soil  it  con- 
tinues to  be  an  occult  art  laden  with  all  the  superstitions 
of  the  middle  ages. 

There  is  no  other  science  for  which  we  are  indebted 
to  China,  but  there  are  many  in  which  the  Chinese  made 
a  beginning  at  an  epoch  when  Europe  was  still  in  a  state 
of  barbarism. 

2.  Astronomy.  In  this  they  made  a  good  beginning 
twenty-two  centuries  before  Christ.  They  had  ar  astro- 
nomical board  with  regular  professors,  two  of  whom  were 
put  to  death  for  failing,  as  some  think,  to  foretell  an 

*  See  chap.  III. 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


eclipse  of  tlie  sun.  Others,  however,  supjxisc  that  their 
(llTell^e  was  failing  to  solemnize  Uie  event  with  proper 
rites. 

At  that  ciKX-h  they  had  fixed  the  lenptli  of  the  year 

MKire  evacllv  than  it  was  tixeil  by  the  Ivmiaiis  in  tiie  time 
of  N'unia.  Ill  their  later  astronomy  Indian  and  Habylunian 
influences  are  conspict'oiis  and  we  are  unable  to  assign  to 
tiieili  anv  ;Teilil  bevdiul  that  of  lu  ili'^^  -nml  (>listT\ i.  rs. 

3.  Mathematics.  Decimal  Arithmetic,  we  are  told, 
was  brought  to  Europe  by  the  Arabs,  along  with  what  we 
still  tall  the  Arabic  figures,  'i'hat  the  Arabs  obtained 
it  fidiii  India  re(|uires  110  demonstration;  but  did  it  origi- 
nate in  India  Whether  it  passed  from  China  to  fndia  or 
7'ice  versa  is  not  easy  to  determine.  It  is  not  very  likely, 
how  evi  r,  that  the  (  liinese  winild  bni  row  it  as  early  as 
2600  H.  when  their  cln"(jnological  computation  was 
adopted — a  systeiri  in  which  it  is  manifestly  involved. 
Tlu'ir  iiMrst  arilhinelic.  llu-  Clu>n  f'ci,  jinnH'tMls  upnn  it. 
and  that  dales,  in  part  at  least,  from  the  Chou  dynasty, 
whose  name  it  bears,  1 125  11.  c. 

Not  a  little  remarkable  is  it  that  this  venerable  book 
contains  a  treatise  oa  right-angled  triangles,  bearing  the 
name  of  Chou  Kung,  the  founder  of  the  House  of  Chou. 
Tri.L;iinnnuir\  a>  it  a|'])eared  in  luiroDe  is  ascribed  to  the 
Hindus,  but  with  them  it  dates  from  the  Greek  invasion, 
having  been  develoi)ed  from  the  Geometry  of  the  Greeks. 
Of  Algebra  the  Chinese  possess  an  original  form  called 
Ticii  yuan,  which  thiiugh  not  found  in  any  bmik  earlier 
than  A.  D.  1247,  gives  signs  of  being  of  indigenous 
growth.  The  words  Tien  \nd  Yuan  are  equivalent  to  x 
and  y  signs  for  unknown  1  ttantities. 

4.  Physics.  Ether,  that  mysterious  substance  which 
of  late  has  forced  itself  on  the  attention  of  our 
philosophers  as  a  necessary  postulate,  was  known  to  the 


CHINESE  DISCOVERIES 


Chinese  a  thousand  years  ago.  It  is,  says  Professor 
Lodge,  "  Till'  simplest  conception  of  tlte  I'nivcrsc  tliat  lias 
yet  occurred  to  the  niiiul  ut  man — one  cuntiruous  sub- 
stance filling  all  space,  which  can  vihrate  as  light,  which 
can  be  partiil  into  pus-tive  and  iH's;ati\e  ckciririt} ,  uliich 
in  whirls  or  vortices  constitutes  matter,  and  which  trans- 
mits by  continuity,  not  by  impact,  every  action  and  re- 
action of  which  matter  is  capable — this  is  the  modem 
view  of  ether  and  its  functions." 

This  conception,  as  I  shall  show  in  the  next  chapter, 
is  not  new  to  the  philosophers  of  Cliina.  How  early  it 
appeari'd  there  it  is  not  easv  to  at'finn — perhaps  eleven 
cciuuries  before  our  era,  when  the  earliest  speculations  on 
the  forces  of  nature  were  embodied  in  the  /  Ching,  or 
"  Book  of  Changes."  It  is  found  as  a  full-fledged  doc- 
trine in  several  writers  of  the  eleventh  century  of  our  era, 
who  not  only  speak  of  an  ethereal  medium,  but  ascribe  to 
it  all  the  iirrperties  above  enumerated,  except  that  of  pro- 
ducing electricity. 

The  word  Ether  is  Greek,  but  our  scientific  use  of  it  is 
essentially  riiinese.  That  we  borrowed  the  idea  frcan 
China  I  wi!  not  assort,  imt  it  is  easy  to  point  out  a  way 
by  which  it  might  have  pas.sed  into  Europe.  The  author 
of  the  modern  theory  of  ether  is  Rene  Descartes.  Edu- 
cated at  flu'  Ji  -^nit  .Seminary  of  La  Fleclie  in  France,  who 
can  prove  that  he  did  not  there  meet  with  fragments  of 
Chinese  philosophy  in  the  writings  of  Jesuit  missionaries? 

5.  Tf  the  Chinese  had  the  Cartesian  philosophy  before 
Descartes,  it  is  equally  true  that  they  understood  the 
Baconian  method  before  Bacon.  'Hiey  knew  the  doctrine 
only  to  reject  it,  as  did  Descartes  at  a  later  date.  Even 
such  general  ideas  as  that  of  Riological  Evolution,  and 
that  of  the  conservation  of  energy,  they  appear  to  have 
apprehended  with  great  clearness,  but  they  never  took  the 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


trouble  to  fortify  llicni  by  the  laborious  process  of  sys- 
tematic induction.  Says  Mencius,  "  The  study  of  nature 
has  for  its  uhji-ct  to  get  at  the  causes  of  thiiiL^s.  In  causes 
the  ground  principle  is  advantage.  Tho'  heaven  is  high, 
and  sun  and  stars  are  far  away,  if  we  could  find  out  the 
causes  of  tlieir  i)lieiii  tneiia.  we  might  sit  Still  and  calculate 
the  solstice  of  a  tlunisand  years." 

in  this  reniarkal)l(  .si)eecli  uttered  400  n.  f.  he  shows 
that  he  knew  how  to  set  about  the  study  of  nature.  It 
might  perhaps  l)e  gcitif.^  Icd  far  to  affirni.  that  in  speaking 
of  "  advantage  "  as  a  fun>lanieiual  principle  in  natural 
causes,  he  anticipated  the  author  of  The  Origin  of 
Species;  yet  this  chscure  hint,  if  followed  up,  might  have 
led  to  Darwin's  doctrine. 

As  most  of  the  points  under  this  last  head  are  treated 
in  the  next  clKii)ter.  1  hiin,^'  the  enumeration  tn  a  close  by 
inquiring  why  the  Chinese  failed  to  profit  by  their  discov- 
eries? The  answer  is  brief  but  decided :  In  the  arts,  the 
slavish  habit  of  following  in  the  footsteps  of  their 
fathers  acted  as  a  bar  to  improvement.  In  the  sciences, 
progress  was  rendered  impossible  by  a  system  of  state 
education  which  made  the  ancient  classics  the  only  basis 
of  public  instructicm. 


n 


CHINESE  SPFCULATION  IN  PHItXtSOPHY  AND  SCIENCE 


HE  te/m  speculative  philosophy*  is  a  little  hazy; 


perhaps,  however,  not  more  so  than  the  thing 


iinlicattil.  It  represents  an  early  stage  of 
thought  priur  to  the  rise  of  physical  science — may  we 
not  add  prior  to,  and  for  the  most  part  in  neglect  of,  that 
logic  wiiose  MtTice  it  is  t.  i  analyze  the  process  of  reasoning 
and  to  fix  the  limits  of  knowledge? 

Irregular  and  haphazard  as  it  has  shown  itself  in  most 
countries,  it  is  nut  ina])tlv  descrihed  hv  the  word  si)ecu- 
lation.  as  understood  in  business  transactions.  Why  is  it 
that  the  speculator  in  the  stock  market  may,  as  by  the  cast 
of  a  die,  achieve  fortune  or  provoke  ruin?  Is  it  not 
because  the  unknown  and  the  variable  are  elements  that 
elude  his  grasp?  Yet  the  element  of  uncertainty  is  pre- 
cisely that  which  contributes  most  to  the  fascination  of  his 
ventures.  1  las  it  not  been  the  same  with  most  of  those 
early  thinkers  who  have  undertaken  to  explain  the 
mystery  of  exi-  ence? 

When  the  pole  of  which  they  are  in  search  is  hedged 
about  by  frozen  seas,  what  wonder  if  their  happiest  efforts 
have  not  been  rewarded  by  complete  success  ?  Yet  has  the 
pursuit  of  truth  in  those  regions  and  in  all  ages  been 
justly  regarded  as  the  most  ennobling  occupation  of  the 
human  mind.  Nor  has  it  been  barren  of  results.  Would 
*  This  rhnptcr  is  included  under  the  he.id  of  Science,  notwith- 
standing the  word  Philosophy  in  its  title,  because  it  deals  chiefly 
with  the  study  of  nature. 


34  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

it  not  be  a  surpr.se  to  tuul  that  Clnnese  explorers  in 
these  high  latitudes  have  planted  their  standard  nearer  to 
the  fK>le  than  those  of  most  otlu  r  natmns' 

To  show  what  they  have  accumphshc.l.  I  .hall  not  .leem 
it  necessary  lo  trace  their  philosophy,  even  m  outhnc 
from  the  dawn  of  speculation,  but  shall  sckct  a  pennd 
when  their  spc  ulativc  th.-ught  was  most  active  and  when 
the  now  donuiiai.t  philosophy  was  formulated.    Of  the 
forty  centuries  included  in  the  recor.ls  of  th.  t  h.nesc 
Empir.  tlur.      -.u.  century,  .-u.d  no  other,  that  can  be 
selected  as  preeimneiulv  tiie  age  of  philosophy.   This  was 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Sung  dynasty  ( 1020  to  1 120  A.  d.  ). 
when  gross  darkness  brooded  over  Kumpe  and  when  the 
western  world  was  convulsed  by  the  Crusades.  Earlier 
dynasties  had  been  distinguished  by  various  f  .nns  ui  in- 
tellectual activity  .-one  by  the  invention  of  political  sys- 
tems one  I      Istorical  writings,  one  for  poetry  aixl  the 
dranla.  etc., -nut  not  until  this  epoch  did  the  Chinese 
mind  evince  a  dispr.sition  to  question  cvcrvthm^'  m  heaven 
and  earth.   In  the  work  of  setting  anew  the  foundations  of 
faith  and  knowledge,  five  men  took  the  lead,  whose  family 
names  (two  beir- brothers)  fall  curiously  into  an  allitera- 
tive line  of  fo-,    svll.-ibles.-Chou,  Chang,  Cheng.  Chu,- 
all  so  disting.  .ihed  that  they  may  be  compared  with  a 
Pleiad  cluster,  a  constellation  (and  are  there  not  many 
-uch')  whose  light  has  not  yet  reached  our  shores.  The 
last  named  is  by  far  the  most  celebrated.   Not  more  origi- 
nal than  the  others,  he  combined  the  qualities  of  a  labori- 
ous scholar  ,uid  an  acute  thinker,  an-l  knew  how  to  gather 
the  scatters   rays  of   his  prdeces.sors  into  a  focus. 
Though  shining  in  part  by  Ixjrrowed  light,  Chu  Hs,  looms 
up  like  a  pharos,  taking  (after  Confucius  and  Menc.us) 
the  third  place  among  the  great  teachers  of  the  Chinese 
people.   AH  five  were  Confucian  scholars,  but  there  can 


CHINESE  SPECULATION 


k»c  no  doubt  that  their  mental  mtivity  uas  stiniulatetl  and 
it.,  ilirttiiuri  (Ivtcrniincd  hy  tht-  .s|KTuiatiofi-  of  Buddhist 
and  I'auihi  wnicr-.  Their  writitins  i.  •  <•  )tmr  tise  im- 
porlana-  fnuii  l\w  fail  thai  fur  li.^>'  Jiiiii.ircl  car*-,  siiuc 
tlif  imlilicalion  hy  ini|K'riaI  auih«)r(tv  »»f  tfe*-  gr^m  kmy- 
cl>'t"'l''i  ''f  /'/;/A'\,./'//y.  tln'v  'u m       •  pred  by  -hf 

goMriiimnl  a.>  tlir  siamlaid  of  i>rui<"i  .\  lo  which  ^tl 
wh<j  aspire  to  the  honur.s  of  the  ••iTi)-«;rrvicc  examinaticms 
art'  i  xpci  led  to  (  (iiifni  iii     I'l.iii  arc  therefore  to  be 

taken  as  tin-  views  uf  tlie  educaio.  uru  the  China  of 
to-day. 

In  their  motle  of  philosophi/mjj  thoy  reseiuML  Des- 
cartes more  than  Bacon,  l  licir  mcthud  is  ./  /-rj.jn.  and, 
hke  the  greai  'Tcmhnian  whu  liad  rer.  '  ".aeon  and  re- 
jected his  d.H  trine,  they  aiii  pteil  ilicir;  'irough  ig- 
norance of  the  e.\f)erinu  nta!  nictliod.  Imt  .  ■  mi  choice. 
Confucius  iiimself  had  laid  di -vn  the  inaxini  that  "  knowl- 
edge conies  from  tlie  study  (»f  things,"  a  maxim  which 
sccm.s  as  nuuh  i  of  place  in  his  pa^'es  as  that  fine 
apiiori.sin  which  sets  forth  the  value  of  exiKrinient  does 
in  those  of  I'lato :  in^tipia  notti  rov  ai&fa  pftitv  noftnHt. 
o9at  Kara  re'xi''}'  ''^t  f/'iiif  /it  xitra  ri'X'i'  * 

The  Chinese  assert  tliat  their  sage  wrote  a  treatise  on 
the  experimental  study  of  nature,  but  that  it  was  lost,  and 
this  fact  I'i.-v  ofTer  a-  "Kcttse  for  the  backwardness  of 
their  coiimiy  in  that  department  of  science.  Descartes  s 
preference  for  the  deductive  method  sprang  from  his 
mathe!iiatii;r  nnitis.  f  »n  the  i>art  of  the  Chinese  it  was 
due  to  a  desire  to  follow  what  they  considered  the  order 
of  nature.  Both  esteented  it  most  rational  to  do  as  Stan- 
ley did  in  exploring  the  Congo—to  strike  the  stream  at  its 

♦  Experiment  (or  experience,  for  in  Greek  a«i  in  French  the 
word  means  both)  causes  the  world  to  go  forward  in  a  scieot^ 
way ;  the  want  of  it,  in  a  haphazard  manner.— Cor^ioj. 


36  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


head  and  follow  it  down  to  the  sea — rather  than  with 

Bacon  to  enter  the  mouth  and  creop  slowly  upward 
against  the  currrnt.  Which  is  the  more  daring  feat,  and 
which  the  more  certain  method,  needs  not  to  be  pointed 
out.  To  compare  the  two  methods  and  define  the  province 
of  each,  docs  not  belong  to  our  present  theme.  Suffice  it 
to  say  that  the  champions  of  the  one  not  infrequently 
made  use  of  the  other.  When  the  Baconian  got  hold  of  a 
great  principle,  he  did  not  fail  to  deduce  its  consequences ; 
nor,  on  the  other  hand,  did  a  Cartesian  neglect  to  appeal 
to  experiment.  With  the  former  experiment  preceded 
discovery;  with  the  latter  it  was  employed  to  confirm 
conclusions. 

Practical  as  the  Chinese  mind  confessedly  is,  it  is  not 
a  little  rcniarkahlc  that  in  the  study  of  nature  Chinese 
philosophers  have  never  made  extensive  use  of  the  in- 
ductive method.  That  they  have  not  been  unacquainted 
with  it  is  evident  from  the  following  ([uestions  and 
answers  found  in  the  writings  of  the  brothers  Cheng: 

"  One  asked  whether,  to  arrive  at  a  knowledge  of  na- 
ture, it  is  necessary  to  investigate  each  particular  object ; 
or  may  not  some  one  thing  be  seized  upon  from  which 
the  knowledge  of  many  things  may  be  derived?" 

"  The  Master  replied :  '  A  comprehensive  knowledge 
of  nature  is  not  so  easily  acquired.  You  must  examine 
one  thing  to-day  and  another  thing  to-morrow,  and  when 
you  have  accumulated  a  store  of  facts,  your  knowledge 
will  burst  its  shell  am'  come  furth  into  fuller  light,  con- 
necting all  the  particulars  by  general  laws.'  " 

In  view  of  this  lucid  response  of  one  of  their  great 
oracles,  who  can  deny  that  the  Chinese  had  a  clear  con- 
ception of  the  inductive  mediod  five  hundred  years  before 
Bacon?  But,  as  Channing  says,  "  Great  men  are  not  so 
much  distinguished  by  difference  of  ideas,  as  by  different 


CHINFSE  SPECULATION 


37 


degrees  in  the  impression  made  by  the  same  idea."  Con- 
trast with  this  a  dictum  of  Chang,  the  second  of  tlie  five : 
"  'I'd  know  nature,  you  must  Hrst  know  Heaven.  If 
yon  have  pushed  your  science  so  far  as  to  know  Heaven, 
then  you  are  at  the  source  of  all  things.  Knowing  their 
evolution  y(»u  can  tell  what  ought  to  he,  :ni(l  what  ought 
not  to  be,  without  waiting  for  anyone  to  intorni  you." 
The  former  statement  made  no  impression  on  the  Chinese 
mind,  while  the  latter  is  universally  regarded  as  its  guid- 
ing star.  How  different  must  have  been  the  history  of  the 
world  had  Chinese  thinkers,  instead  of  seeking  for  a  short 
cut  to  imiversal  knowledge,  been  content  to  study  one 
thing  at  a  time,  with  a  view  to  "  connecting  all  the 
particulars  by  general  laws." 

In  accordance  with  the  principle  so  confidently  enunci- 
ated, Chang  and  his  followers  (and  his  predecessors  as 
well)  have  directed  their  main  attack  to  the  problems  of 
cosmogony,  believing  that  tliey  might  thereby  arrive  at 
the  "  source  of  all  things."  'I'oines  are  filled  w  ith  conjec- 
tures and  reasonings  which  it  would  be  unprofitable  to 
follow  out  in  detail.  The  results,  however,  if  I  may  so 
call  them,  wliich  they  reached  by  a  sort  of  hap])y  guess 
work,  are  not  unworthy  of  notice,  forming  as  they  do  the 
philosophical  creed  of  educated  China. 

Stimulateil.  as  I  have  said,  by  the  si)eculatiniis  nf  P.ud- 
dhist  and  Taoist  schools,  they  took  care  to  follow  neither ; 
and  betray  the  influence  of  these  sectaries  chicHy  by  the 
pains  they  are  at  to  steer  a  middle  c(nirse  between  the  two. 
To  the  one  school,  mind  i.s  the  otdy  entity,  and  matter  a 
deceptive  figment  of  the  imagination ;  to  the  other,  matter 
is  the  sole  essence,  and  mind  one  of  its  products.  Each 
inculcated  a  species  of  iiinnism.  The  thinkers  of  the 
Sung  dynas'v,  combining  these  ono-side  1  conceptions, 
boldly  assert  a  dualism  in  nature,  and  fix  on  li  and  ch'i. 


38  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


force  and  matter,  as  the  semitial  principles  of  the 
universe.* 

Is  it  not  a  little  startling  to  find  them  at  that  early  date 
hitting  on  a  generalization  which  to  us  appears  among  the 
late  results  of  modem  science?  Yet  we  shall  see  as  we 
advance  that  this  is  not  the  only  instance  in  which  their 
unscientific  speculations  have  anticipated  the  teachings  of 
modem  science. 

Both  terms  in  their  dual  formula  require  elucidation. 
Of  the  two  principles,  one  is  active,  the  other  passive.  I 
have  rendered  li  by  the  word  "  force,"  as  being  active,  but 
it  is  not  mere  force.  The  word  signifies  a  principle  of 
order,  a  law  of  nature.  It  is  often  synonymous  with  Tao, 
"  reason,"  answering  to  the  Greek  lo^os.  \\  hen  Llui  Hsi 
says  that  "heaven  is  li,"  he  e  ••  l<  itly  means  that  the 
prime  force  in  the  universe  is  reascjn, — exactly  the  position 
maintained  by  the  Tao  sts,  though  they  use  T ao,  and  not 
li,  to  express  the  idea.  With  both,  this  reason,  if  we  may 
so  call  it,  is  rather  a  property  of  min>l  than  mind  itself. 
Each  denies  its  personality,  nut  perceiving  that  a  property 
implies  a  substance,  and  that  in  this  case  the  substance 
must  be  mind. 

Ch  i,  the  second  term  of  the  formula,  being  passive,  is 
matter.  In  poi)iilar  use,  however,  it  is  limited  to  matter  in 
a  gaseous  form  and  in  these  philosophical  speculations  it 
means  primordial  matter.    Hear  what  they  say  of  it: 

In  a  treatise  called  Clicng  Mens:  "  Right  Discipline  for 
Youth,"  Chang,  with  a  thoroughness  characteristic  of  the 
Chinese,  tieL;ins  with  the  oriijiii  of  the  universe.  "The 
immensity  of  space,  though  called  the  great  void,"  he  says, 

♦  They  profess  to  dt  rive  their  doctrines  from  the  /  Ching,  the 
Chinese  (kiic-is— anJ  m,  do  tlie  'T;i.>ist!;.  It  is  surprising  with 
what  skill  each  school  succeeds  in  reading  its  tenets  into  that 
ancient  text,  parts  of  which  are  referred  to  b.  c.  afioot 


CHINESE  SPECULATION 


"is  not  void.   It  is  filled  with  a  subtile  substance.  In 

fact,  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a  vacuum."  Now  what  is 
this  omnipresent  subtile  substance?  "  If  we  compare  the 
descriptions  of  it  given  by  these  writers,  we  cannot  resist 
the  conchision  tliat  it  is  ether ;  not  the  ether  of  the  Greeks, 
tlie  burning  air,  tiie  empyrean,  but  the  ail-pervailing  etlier 
of  our  modern  science.  It  is  the  stuflf  out  of  which  matter 
was  produced.  Tliis  is  now  a  familiar  idea,  not  of  sci- 
ence, but  of  scientific  speculation.  It  is  set  forth  with 
special  fullness  in  a  work  on  tlie  unseen  universe,  by  those 
eminent  professors,  P.  G.  Tate  and  Balfour  Stewart, 
along  with  the  correlative  doctrine  of  the  reversion  of 
matter  to  its  primitive  state. 

Our  Chinese  philosophers  taught  the  same  Hiing  cen- 
turies ago.  What  says  the  author  of  Right  uisciplinef 
His  words  arc:  "  Within  the  immensity  of  space  matter 
is  alternately  concentrated  and  dissipated,' much  as  ice  is 
congealed  or  dissolved  in  water."  Not  merely  do  they 
antedate  these  English  writers  in  making  it  the  source 
of  matter,  they  seem  to  have  hit  on  the  dynamical  theory 
of  the  molecule,  and  particularly  on  vortex  motion,  as  the 
process  of  transformation.  Cliou,  a  contemporary  of 
Chang,  is  known  as  the  author  of  a  diagram  of  cos- 
mogony. He  begins  with  a  ring  or  circle  of  uniform 
whiteness,  representing  the  primitive  imiform  ether. 
Then  follows  a  circle  partly  dark,  which  shows  the  origi- 
nal substance  differentiated  into  two  forms,  or  rather 
forces,  called  and  Vani^.  Speakitii;  of  this  diagram, 
"  It  shows,"  says  Chu,  the  great  expositor  of  the  Chinese 
canonical  books,  "  how  the  primitive  void  is  transformed 
into  matter."  Tlir  two  forces,  nw  lai  mo  c/i'il.  grind  back 
and  forth,  like  millstones,  in  opposite  directions,  and  the 
detritus  resulting  from  their  friction  is  what  we  call 
matter." 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


Perhaps  the  most  striking  point  in  this  Chinese  cos- 
mogony is  the  account  it  gives  of  the  creaiinn  of  Hglit. 
r\ii  cli'i  tiiiig  cili  slu'ii};;  y^'ig-  "  ^li*-'  primal  essetice 
niovcii,  and  light  was  boni."  That  the  mode  of  motion 
was  vibratory  they  also  conjectured,  but  1  do  not  assert 
that  thfv  ever  oarricil  thiir  rtscarclKS  so  far  a>  to  measure 
the  leiigtii  of  a  kuuiniiVrous  wave,  a  penormaiice  wliich 
may  now  be  witnessed  any  day  in  our  physical  lahoraturies. 
The  Occidental  tlieorv  of  the  ether  and  its  functions  is 
confirmed  by  a  magniiicent  array  of  scientitic  facts;  the 
Oriental  theory,  standing  apart  from  experimental  sci- 
ence, never  eni'.'r.i;e(l  from  tlie  stale  ni  s])ecii!ation ;  a 
speculation  wonderfully  acute  and  stihHnie.  in  which  the 
scientific  imagination  shows  itself  to  the  best  advantage, 
divining  as  if  by  instinct  great  truths  wliicli  ri(iuiro 
for  their  confirmatiim  the  slower  process  of  patient 
investigation.  Nor  must  we  forget  that  in  the  West 
this  theory  existed  in  the  state  of  a  discarded  specula- 
tion for  at  least  two  centuries  before  it  received  the  seal 
of  science. 

The  first  European  tn  get  a  glimpse  of  the  circumam- 
bient ocean  was  Rene  I )i-.iarti  s.  His  mistake  in  referring 
the  motions  of  the  planets  to  whirlpools  of  ether  brought 
discredit  on  his  whole  system,  notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  he  also  held  that  mimUe  vortices  weri-  incosary  to 
explain  the  constitution  of  matter.  LUit  what  a  glorious 
resurrection  awaited  it!  In  the  last  year  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  touched  literally  by  a  sintl'cam.  it  woke 
from  its  lc«ig  slumber.  Young  found  it  necessary  to  the 
hvpothcsis  of  undulations,  to  which  he  was  led  by  the 
interference  of  rays,  and  Fresnel  resorted  to  it  to  explain 
the  phenomena  of  polarization.  If  this  revival  enhances 
the  respect  with  which  we  regard  the  "  father  of  mo<lern 
philosophy,"  should  it  not  also  reflect  a  little  luster  on 


CHINESE  SPECULATION 


4> 


those  early  thinkers  of  the  far  East  who  made  the 
Cartesian  ether  the  basis  of  their  cosmogony? 

Two  or  three  doctrines  that  have  played  a  great  part  in 
the  intellectual  movements  of  our  age  remain  to  be 
noticed  as  having  been  long  ago  propounded  by  the  specu- 
lative i)!ii!osophers  of  China.  That  tliey  slioiild  have 
some  conception  of  an  evolutionary  process  in  nature  is 
not  to  be  wondered  at.  What  but  a  most  thoroughgoing 
doctrine  of  evolution  is  to  be  expected  from  men  who 
begin  with  the  evolution  of  matter?  The  original  unity 
of  matter,  suggested  by  modem  researches  in  molecular 
p^-vsics,  we  may  remark,  was  assumed  in  all  of  their  cos- 
mological  speculations.  What  the  eminent  physicist,  J. 
W.  Draper,  says  of  the  alchemists  of  Europe  is  true  in  a 
still  higher  degree  of  those  of  China,  who  led  the  way, 
both  in  speculation  and  iiivestigatinti.  "  They  were  the 
first  to  seize  the  grand  idea  of  evolution  in  its  widest 
extent  as  a  progress  from  the  imperfect  to  the  more  per- 
fect in  lifeless  as  well  as  living  nature,  in  an  increasing 
progression  in  which  all  things  take  part  toward  a  higher 
and  nobler  state."  This  view  is  prominent  in  the  writings 
of  many  c'  the  philosophers  of  ancient  China. 

Here  is  a  statement  from  the  works  of  one  of  the  Cheng 
brothers,  which  shows  that  they  came  verv  near  to  the 
doctrine  of  the  conservation  of  energy.  He  says :  "  Body 
in  motion  is  force.  Its  contact  with  another  is  followed 
by  a  reaction  or  eflfect.  This  effect  in  turn  acts  as  a  force 
producincf  another  effect,  and  so  on  without  end." 
"  Here."  he  adds,  "  is  a  vast  subject  for  the  student  of 
philosophy."  The  Chinese  "  .students  of  phiIoso]ihy  "  have 
not  troubled  themselves  to  verify  this,  any  more  than 
other  shrewd  guesses  of  iluir  predecessors  Tlie  remark, 
however,  which  Chu  makes  on  this  passage  shows  a  com- 
prehensive grasp  of  the  idea.   "  Heaven  and  earth,"  he 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


says,  "  with  all  they  contain,  are  nothing  but  transforma- 
tions of  one  primitive  force." 

In  conclusion,  tlic  fcisiii(\c:nny  of  our  Chinese  philoso- 
phers is  by  no  means  so  atheistic  as  it  might  appear. 
True,  Chu  Hsi,  the  authorized  expounder  of  their  system, 
says:  "  We  nuist  hewarr  u{  tliinkiiiLj  that  tlnrc  is  a  man 
up  in  the  sky,  who  controls  the  motion  of  the  universe." 
But  he  does  not  deny  that  there  is  a  power  at  work  whose 
nature  is  inscrutable.  Says  C'lianp,  the  most  daring  of  the 
five :  "  The  great  void  is  fiUed  with  a  pure  or  perfect  fluid. 
Since  it  is  perfectly  fluid,  it  offers  no  obstruction  to  move- 
ment "  (i.  e.,  it  neither  impedes  motion  nor  is  its  proper 
motion  impeded).  "There  licing  no  obstruction  [i.  e., 
nothing  to  bring  about  a  cliange  of  statej,  a  divine  force 
converts  the  pure  into  the  gross."  To  explain  the  cre- 
ation of  matter,  he  invokes,  thouph  reluctantly,  the  inter- 
vention of  a  dix  inc  power.  Is  it  not  what  Horace  calls 
Nodus  tali  znndice  dignusf 

That  our  (.'hintsc  thinkers  meant  God  in  a  proper 
sense,  I  will  not  affirm,  but  they  considerately  leave  room 
for  him.  Have  we  not  seen  that  one  of  the  dual  principles 
postulated  by  them  is  invested  with  some  of  tlie  "  at- 
tributes of  mind?"  They  dogmatize  about  self-acting 
laws,  but  there  is  reason  to  expect  that  another  genera- 
tion will  come  to  understand  that  law  implies  mind,  and 
will  proclaim  with  Emerson  that 

"  Conscious  law  is  King  ot  kings." 

To  them  our  Western  school  of  agnosticism  is,  as  yet 
unknown.  In  that  line,  too,  they  are  in  advance  of  us 
by  several  centuries.  But  their  agnosticism  is  of  a  milder 
type  than  ours.  It  is  imt  aggressive,  neither  is  it  so 
bigoted  as  not  to  be  open  to  conviction.  It  is,  moreover, 
as  the  Occidental  is  not,  profoundly  reverential.   For  this 


CHINESE  SPECULATION 


habit  of  mind  it  is  indebted  to  Confucius,  who,  to  wean 
his  people  from  debasing  forms  of  idolatry,  employed  for 

the  Suprciiif  V,v\n<^  tlu-  vafjue  term  Heaven,  and  dis- 
couraged thcin  from  prying  into  those  transcendental 
mysteries  hidden  by  the  veil  of  blue.  He  believed,  how- 
ever, in  a  moral  y;overnment,  and  so  do  a!!  his  followers 
to  this  day.  He  ascribed  to  the  object  of  his  reverence 
more  of  personality  than  they  are  willing  to  admit.  "  The 
superior  man,"  he  said,  "  fears  throe  things,  and  the  first 
is  Heaven."  "  With  wiiat  words  does  Heaven  speak  to 
us?  "  he  asks  again.  "  The  seasons  run  their  rounds,  and 
animal  and  vegetable  life  displays  itself  in  a  hundred 
forms.  These  are  the  lans^uatje  of  Heaven."  He  ap- 
proaches far  nearer  to  the  Christian  idea  of  God  than  the 
negations  of  Buddha,  or  the  metamorphoses  of  Taoism; 
and  there  is  reason  to  hope  that  his  disciples  will  come 
back  to  the  mental  attitude  of  their  great  master,  which 
has  been  somewhat  obscured  by  later  speculations.  To 
bring  them  back,  and  to  carry  them  beyond  it,  tht  \- 
require,  above  all  things,  a  truer  logic  and  a  juster  psy- 
chology than  they  have  ever  possessed.* 

Happy  will  it  be  for  China  when  those  who  control  the 
opinions  of  the  people  learn,  in  that  vague  Power  of 
which  they  stand  in  awe,  to  recognize  the  Pater  Mundi. 

*  With  a  view  to  meeting  this  demavA.  I  prepared  three  years 
agi..  in  Chimse,  a  voliiiiic  on  Christian  "  ;:cholot;y,  which  \v;is  in- 
iroiliiced  to  the  Chinese  world  by  a  preface  from  the  pen  of 
Li  Hting  Chang,  and  published  by  the  Sockty  for  the  Diffusion 
of  Useful  Knowledge. 


Ill 


'ALCHXMY  IN  CHINA,  THE  SOUKCE  OF  CHEMISTRY 

"  The  search  itself  rewards  the  pains ; 

So  tliough  the  cliyiiii-,1  liis  great  secret  misi. 

For  neither  it  in  art  nor  nature  is, 
Yet  things  well  worth  his  toil  he  gains, 
And  does  his  charge  and  labor  pay, 
With  good  unsought  experiments  by  the  way." 

— COWLEV. 

ONE  in  their  etyinological  origin,  the  words  Al- 
chemy and  Chemistry  describe  diftereiU  stages 
in  the*  progress  of  the  same  science.  The 
former  represents  it  in  its  infancy,  nursed  on  the  bosom  of 
superstition;  its  field  of  vision  limited  to  special  objects, 
and  vainly  striving  to  accomplish  the  impossible.  The 
latter  presents  it  in  its  maturity,  when,  emancipated  from 
puerile  fancies,  it  claims  the  realm  of  nature  for  its 
domain,  and  the  laws  of  matter  as  its  proper  study. 

A  glance  at  alchemy  as  practiced  in  the  West  will  be 
necessary  to  prepare  us  for  understanding  the  role  it  ha» 
played  in  the  distant  Orient. 

In  its  earlier  stage  it  acknowledged  no  other  aim  than 
the  pursuit  of  the  jiliilosopher's  stone  and  the  elixir  of 
life.  In  its  more  advanced  state  it  renounces  thcin  both, 
yet  it  secures  substantial  advantages  of  scarcely  inferior 
magnitude,  alleviating  disease  and  prolonging  lifr  1>v  tlie 
improvements  it  has  introduced  into  the  practice  of  medi- 
cine ;  while  by  the  mastery  it  gives  us  over  the  elements 

44 


ALCHEMY  IN  CHINA 


of  nature  it  surpasses  the  most  sanguine  expectations  of 
its  early  votaries. 

Those  early  votaries,  whether  they  lived  and  labored  in 
the  West  or  East,  should  not  be  forgotten.  They  were 
the  intrepid  divers  who  explored  the  bottom  of  the  stream, 
and  laid  the  foundation  for  those  magnificent  arches  on 
which  modern  science  has  erected  her  easy  thoroughfare. 
Like  coral  insects,  "  building  better  than  they  knew,"  tiiey 
toiled  upward  in  the  midst  of  darkness,  guided  only  by  a 
faint  glimmer  of  the  light,  but  without  any  conception  of 
the  extent  and  richness  of  the  new  world  of  knowledge 
that  was  destined  to  spring  from  their  ill-directed  labors. 
Heirs  of  the  world's  experience,  and  themselves  daring 
experimenters,  we  need  not  be  surprised  to  find  them  in 
possession  of  a  larj^e  mass  of  empirical  information.* 

The  old  Arabian  Geber.f  as  early  as  the  eighth  certury, 
was  acquainted  with  the  preparation  of  sulphuric  acid 
and  aqua  regia,  and  gave  an  elaborate  description  of  the 
more  useful  metals.  He  was  a  chemist ;  if  A.  Von  Hum- 
boldt is  right  in  saying  that  "  Chemistry  begins  when 
men  have  learned  to  employ  mineral  acids  and  powerful 
solvents." 

In  the  twelfth  century,  Albertus  Magnus  I  understood 

*  Cowley  expresses  this  idea  in  the  verses  prefixed  to  this 
essay,  which,  it  most  be  confessed,  contain  more  truth  than 
poetry. 

tFrom  his  name  comes  gibberish  much  as  dunce  comes  from 

Duns  Scottis. 

t  Humboldt  fpe.iks  of  Albcrttis  Magnus  as  "  an  independent 
ohserver  in  the  domain  of  analytical  chemistry ; "  and  adds, 
"  It  is  true  that  his  hopes  were  directed  to  the  transmutation  of 
metals,  but  in  his  attempts  to  fulfil  this  object  he  not  only 
improved  the  practical  manipulation  of  ores,  hut  also  enlarged 
the  insight  of  men  into  the  general  mode  of  action  of  the 
chemical  forces  of  nature." 


^6  THE  LORE  OF  CA  I'HAV 

the  cupellatinn  -f  ^oUl  a.ul  silver,  and  d.cir  purification  by 
Jlns^f  lead,  as  also  the  preparation  of  caust.c  potass.. 

ceruse,  and  minium.  ^rr^^r1cv 
In  the  thirtoc.th.  RoK'cr  P.acnn  descr.be.l  with  accuracy 
the  properties  of  saltpetre,  guing  the  recipe  for  gun- 
t^JT.n^  approaching  very  nearly  to  the  explanation 

of  the  functions  of  air  in  cnniluistion. 

""'  n  the  same  century.  i<^>  Htll  la  er 

process  of  obtaining  the  essemial  o.ls ;  and.  -  I'^t'^  ater 
Basil  Valentine  obtained  cpper  from  blue  v.tr.ol  b)  he 
ui  of  iron ;  and  .Hscovered  ant,n>ony,  sulphur.c  ether 

/,  1,1     T«ar  de  Hollanda  s  fabricated 

and  fulnunatmg  gold.    Isaac  ae  nonaiiu-  . 

«ms  and  described  the  process.    I'randt  while  anal)  zmg 
fTunnau  body   in   quest  of  the  philosophers  stone, 
stumbled  on  the  discovery  of  phosphorus^  Paracelsus 
In  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Taracelsus 
did  m  Kb  o  ovenhrow  the  inert  methods  of  the  Galenis^ 
and  gained  a  great  and  well-deserved  reputation  by  mtro- 
ducing  the  use  of  mineral  medicines,  i.  e.  of  cheni.cal 
compotmds.^    Tins  last-named  indivi.lual.  though  among 
modern  professors,  may  be  taken  as  the  very  be 
L  of  the  so-called  science  of  alchemy,  whether  in  its 
wi'dom  or  its  folly,  in  the  absurdity  of  'ts  pretensions  o' 
in  the  solid  value  of  its  actual  achievement,.   His  name 
Ph  ppus  Aureolus  Theophrastus  Bombastes  Paracelst. 
Z  Hohenheim,  is  synnnvnums  with  charlatan;  and  .s 
I^e  sadlv  illustrates  the  history  of  his  pro  ession,  which 
one  of  his  fellow-laborers  describes  as  "begjnnmg  in 
deceit,  progressing  with  toil,  and  ending  m  be,^gary 

."With  the  ri^o  oi  the  Spatryrists  and  Paracelsus,  who  taught 
that  the  tiue  u.e  of  chcnistry  is  no,  to  make  gold  but  tnedic.nes 
inai  UK  II      "  ,.,„.T,r,t  nt  T  rntiona  inirsuit  ot  tne 

we  .eem  to  perceive  ''^'.'^J'\rilZJy  "  tn  ih.  Encyclop<rdia 
.study  "  (review  of  article     Chemistry     m  wic  > 
BritannUa;  Nature,  January,  1877  ) 


ALCHEMY  IN  CHINA  47 


His  life  was  terminated,  like  those  of  so  many  professed 
adepts,  liy  iinhihinp  a  draii)j;lit  of  his  own  dixir.*  Nor 
was  I'aracclMis  the  last  victim  of  this  bewitching  delusicm. 
In  1784,  Dr.  Price,  an  English  physician,  after  having 
made  gold  in  the  presence  f)f  several  persons,  and  pre- 
sented some  of  the  precious  product  to  George  111.,  on 
being  examined  by  a  scientific  commission,  committed 
suicide  to  escape  the  slianie  of  exposure. 

Alchemy  is  not  exclusively  an  old-world  delusion.  It 
crossed  the  ocean  in  the  Mayflower  along  with  witch- 
craft. 

"  One  of  the  most  curious  things  revealed  to  us  in  these 
volumes  (of  voyages)"  says  Mr.  Lowell,  "is  the  fact 
that  John  Winthrop  Jr.,  was  seeking  the  philosopher's 
stone." 

In  Jonathan  Brewster,  we  have  a  specimen  (of  a  dif- 
ferent kind).  Is  it  not  curious  that  there  should  have 
been  a  balneum  viorial  at  New  London,  two  hundred 
years  ago?  that  la  recherche  de  labioln  should  have 
been  going  on  there  in  a  log  hut  under  constant  fear  that 
the  Indians  would  put  out,  not  merely  the  flower  of  one 
little  life,  but  rob  the  world  of  this  divine  secret.f 

Dr.  Barnard,  "  the  diamond-maker  of  Sacramento," 
with  his  feet  on  the  auriferous  dust  of  California,  sacri- 
ficed his  life  a  few  years  ago  in  the  vain  attempt  to  manu- 
facture something  more  precious  than  gold.  Charging 

•Of  martyrs  of  science  of  this  description.  >  juntry  can 
show  a  longer  catalogue  than  China.  It  may  be  found  in  txtenso 
in  native  polemics  against  the  Taoist  religion,  or  scattered 

through  the  pages  of  the  nation.il  histories.  It  will  be  sufficient 
here  10  refer  to  the  F.p-  rs  Mil  Tsunji;  { .\.  n  825).  and  Wu 
Tsung  (A.  D.  S47),  I'f  t..^  ang  dyn3';ty.  both  f'f  wh  are  said 
to  have  shortened  their  lives  by  drinking  a  pretended  elixir  of 
immortalitr. 
t  Among  My  Books,  pp.  353,  356. 


48 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


a  hollow  splirre  with  the  costly  ingredients,  which,  on  the 
application  of  fire,  wtie  to  crystallize  into  diamonds,  he 
was  blown  into  the  air  hy  a  premature  cxp!  si.in,  and 
died  without  rcvcalin;;  I'u-  sv  -rct  of  a  Inch  !u  l)clieved 
himself  In  be  the  sole  civi  -iti'r 

In  (itriiiany  a  Siicii'.i-  '!>  'iirticti  i%isu.l  late 
the  year  iSnj,  and  tli'^  . '.i;;i:>  .■<i  a  •jU'-piiu^n  that  tin  race 
of  alchemists  may  n  •  y«'t  bi  altogether  extinct,  even 
anionp  tis.  [n  fact  V'<  iia]«  r  u  ll  us  ,  f  a  mat;  wluv  in 
Canada,  in  1877,  comiiiiiad  .1  iilc  fur  uic  avo'At'd  pur- 
pose of  testing  the  virtues  of  a  restorstive  elixir  which 
he  profcf-ci!  l  i  liavo  invntrd  ''.y  r  n  '■  c!  liis  lifvU-ss 
corpj-c  a  letter  was  found  d.iei.iing  iliat  "  a  tew  particles 
of  my  '  creative  all-changcful  essence  '  W  scattered  over 
my  r' rnains,  when  'tu'  elnmiits  wi"  -'tlvc  'iemsclvs 
into  a  new  conil,  aliun.  and  1  will  re..i.i>ear  a  living  ■  ,1- 
dence  of  the  tnith  of  this  new  di'-oovery."  If  these  are 
the  words  of  a  madman,  tin y  are  those  <  i  ■  •  ■  vvlx'^e 
brain  was  turned  by  .he  study  of  al  bemy.  A  large  I  ^ttle 
containing  the  elixir  was  found  standing  h\  the  letter  If 
this  poor  ''clli>\v  was  the  la<?  to  offer  '  -  If  as  a  acri- 
fice  to  tlu  Moloch  of  alcluniy.  the  la-^t  ,  liemi'>r  -.ho 
succeoled  m  vietimizinfj  the  pulihc  was  <  ou  Cagli  ^iro, 
who,  after  vending  bis  "  elixir  of  immortal  youth  "  in 
most  of  the  courts  of  Europe,  closed  his  career  in  a  papal 
prison  in  1795! 

•        melancliolv  hi>lory  was  .it  1'  rigth  iniiifr  the  title 

of  "  The  Diatiiond-makcr  of  Sacramento."  sonic  years  agf»,  in  the 
O'^crland  MonthI  a  spirited  magazine  of  San  Francesco,  suc- 
ce<!sfully  edited       the  poet  Bret  H.irte,  and  the  Hon.  B.  P. 

'         Ir'f  U  '      tinistcr  at  Peking,    .^gainst  the  po   ibility  of 
uKiking  large  tr     parent  cry  -tals  of  pure  carbon,  moucrn  chrrr. 
istry  h.i^  never      dertakm  '  •  pronounce;  the  ancient  ;  :;<!  un 
ce^-siiil  (lianioni    makers.  how>  ver,  were  not  chemists  hut  alciit' 

nii>t>. 

i  Scientific  American.  March  ji.  1877. 


ALCHEMY  IN  JHIKA 


49 


Jf  '  hina.  the  »'rfmeti<  an  still  rtourishes  in  full  Vi  or. 

>f  I  lin^t  .'iit\  in  Chna, 
>  liiii  irating  the  anlur  w  h 
I  )r  ♦•ntal.i  still  continue  to  pursue 
'it  .    'u'  iiiissiwi!  rics  istablishe^i 
ig,  ■<-  Canton  j  lovincc,  %  com 


Tl,  .Ik    ■  ■  I 

ri.'!:i.<.^  an  .r  .ng 
which  these  j  rn-vci 
I'  j^ii'.'fii  ph  .nt<ini 
thenis'.  ivc»  in  hao 
iu;,_v  -jf  tf'Jucate-'  fiative> 
tere  bi;  ii>  enj^  l  'I  in 
rva  'hi 
■d  l-.in  .  ,  iU 

i*  assc  ion 

'III'  ■  hii  ■ 


>  g- ■' 
hir 
•  wh 
rageir 


thi'Si 

Belie%  ng 
favufs  to 
vantap 

wit^    m  'W\ 
••aui  ' 

fil  h 

oster  n 
his  pen*  -ou- 
prob;   ;e,  tliv  V  : 
h-  '        such  M 
-ance  hi- 
nei  ''■•2; 

li  the 
delusion, 
the 


•isiderable  means 

in/  to  'ic  prohlcni  of 

<r     <'-.  I'd  to  them  that 
lii  1  possession  of  it. 


sfg.       I  load  him  with 
'•i,        tlM'ir  ad- 
id  f      shed  him 
■ison.--  a^-      nts  an>     trchase  a 
'    lis  part,  was  in       haste  to 
i.     *as  only  waiting  for  the 
their  lips.   But  the  patience  of 
!ial!\  i,'avc  (uit ;  or,  what  is  more 
nu     from  the  missionariec  tiiat  thev 
•t  to  communicate.    To  escape  the- 
fty  rojj-     wa    compelled  to  fly  to  . 
Were  he  ■  nded  his  days  in  a  prison. 
,e       last  to  surrender  this  pitasing 
i^'  ioti      foH  tt  believe  that  they  deserve 
disimetion  of  being  the  first  to 


of 


if  an  idea  so  fruitful  in  results  is  a  question 

■St ;  .  '1  man\  writers  liavo  cxiiondcd  011  it 
of  their  learning.    Some  find  it  in  the  my- 


'Tl, 


.f  tl-,    Greeks,  mamtammg  ' 

hristian  era)  that  the  i^i 


(k'ti 


mterpretation 

tight 


'■ecc  s.) 


nauis  was  merely  a  sheepskin  on  which 
the  secret  of  making  gold  ;*  and  this  fancy 
tion  of  the  legend  comes  from  Dionysius  of 


Jttityletic.  wiw  l>>ed  circa  b.  c.  50. 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


derives,  it  must  be  confessed,  a  little  support  from  the  cir- 
cumstance that  Medea  is  represented  as  ixjssosed  ol  the 
corresponding  secret  of  perpetuating  or  restoring  youth, 
having  cut  to  pieces  and  reconstructet'  her  aged  father- 
in-law. 

Some,  again,  discover  the  orii;in  of  the  idea  in  F-Rvpt, 
the  land  of  Thoth  (Hermes  Trisniegistus),  and  allege,  in 
corroboration  of  their  view,  that  the  ancient  Egyptians 
possessed  considerable  -kill  in  practical  chemistry.  lUit 
the  advocates  of  its  Egyptian  origin  are  not  able  to  trace 
it  back  further  than  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies,  and  stu- 
dents of  Hindu  literature  maintain  that  the  Indians 
possessed  a  knowledge  of  it  long  before  that  date,  though 
it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  there  is  nothing  more  uncer- 
tain than  the  chronology  of  ancient  India.* 

Others  adduce  conclusive  proof  to  show  that  modern 
Europe  received  it  from  tlie  Arabs.  They  have  not,  how- 
ever, shown  that  the  Arabs  were  its  authors;  and  seem 
scarcely  to  have  entertained  a  suspicion  that  those  wan- 
dering sons  of  the  desert,  like  birds  and  bees,  were  noth- 
ing more  than  agents  through  whom  a  prolific  germ  was 
conveyed  from  sonic  portion  of  the  remoter  East.  What 
that  portion  is,  the  name  of  Avicenna,  one  of  the  most 
eminent  of  the  Arabian  scholars,  might  have  served  to 
suggest,  if  they  had  followed  the  leading  of  words  as 
carefully  ns  a  certain  erudite  Orientalist f  who  not  only 
finds  in  India  the  origin  of  the  doctrines  of  Pythagoras, 
but  recognizes  his  name  under  the  disguise  of  Budd- 

•  Some  iiisinictivc  disclosures  on  this  subject  may  be  found  in 
a  lecture  of  tlie  late  Cardin.il  Wiseman  entitled  "Early  History." 
It  has  tiecii  a>sertfd  by  those  who  claim  to  he  well  versed  in  the 
history  of  India  tliat  in  that  country  the  earliest  date  that  can 
be  considered  historical  i.s  April,  B.  C  327,  the  date  of  its  inva- 
tion  by  Alexander  tlie  Great. 

tPococke,  Greece  in  India. 


ALCHEMY  IN  CHINA  ji 


haguru!  For  what  is  Avicenna  but  Ebn-Cinna?  And 

what  is  Ebn-Cinna  or  Ibn  Sina,  as  it  is  sometimes  written, 
but  a  "Son  of  China?"— a  designation  assumed  by  the 
learned  physician  probably  because  he  was  bom  at 
Bokhara,  on  the  eonfincs  of  tlie  Chinese  Empire! 

If  we  were  as  ready  to  rest  in  etymologies  as  the  above- 
cited  Orientalist,  who  triumphantly  concludes  a  chapter 
with  that  curious  derivation  of  the  name  of  P\  thagoras, 
we  might  consider  our  point  as  carried.  Our  etymology 
is,  to  say  the  least,  as  good  as  his ;  but  we  let  it  go  for 
what  it  is  worth,  and  rest  our  argument  on  better 
evidence.* 

•  Nothing  is  more  fallacious  than  the  attempt  to  identify  words 
in  different  languages  by  means  of  a  mere  superficial  resemblance. 
Some  years  ago  in  reading  the  Amour  Midecin  of  Moliere,  I 
fancied  I  had  dj.'  Mcd  a  translation  in  a  combined  form  of  the 
most  familiar  names  for  tan  tin-  Chinese  elixir  of  life.  The 
word  orviitan,  which  is  made  so  .nspicuoiis  in  one  of  the  scenes, 
describes  a  mysterious  panacea,  whose  virtues  the  vender  vaunts 
in  strains  as  pompous  as  those  of  the  Chinese  alchemist.  It 
struck  me  at  once  that,  seUing  aside  the  accent,  which  goes  for 
nothing  in  etymology,  it  might  be  taken  as  expressing  golden 
elixir,  and  elixir  of  long  life.  Littre  and  the  Pictionnaire  de 
I'Acadfmie  decided  against  me,  referring  the  word  to  the  old  city 
of  Orvieto  (urbs  vetus).  But,  whatever  the  .source  of  the  name, 
so  exactly  to  the  thing  itself  answers  Chinese /an,  or  elixir,  that 
I  cannot  forbear  quoting  a  few  lines  descriptive  of  its  qualities. 

"  Sganari'lle.  Monsieur,  je  vous  prie  de  me  donner  une  brate  de 
votre  orvietan.  que  je  m'en  vais  VOUS  payer. 
"  L'Operateur  (chantant). 
L'or  de  tous  les  climats  qu'entoure  I'Ocean, 
Peut-il  Jamais  payer  ce  secret  d'importance? 
Mon  remede  gtierit.  par  sa  rare  excellence. 
Plus  de  niaux  qu'on  n'en  peut  nombrer  dans  tout  on  an: 
La  gale.  I.a  rogne,      teigne.  La  fievre,  La  peste.  La  goutt^ 

Verole,  De'centc,  Rougecrfc 
O  grande  puissance 
De  I'orviftaat" 


52  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

It  is  not  improbahlc,  as  we  shall  attempt  to  show,  that 
the  true  cradle  of  aklu  iny  was  Cliina— a  cDimlry  in  which 
one  of  tlic  oldest  Iiraneiies  of  the  human  family  began 
their  career  of  experience  ;  a  country  in  which  we  discover 
so  many  of  the  seeds  of  our  modem  art;  germs  which, 
dwarfed  and  stunted  in  their  native  clinuite,  have  only 
been  made  to  flourish  l.y  a  change  uf  soil.  To  establish 
this  would  be  an  interesting  contribution  to  the  history 
of  science;  and  it  mi{,du  perliaps  lead  us  to  take  an  ojiti- 
mistic  view  even  of  the  sins  and  follies  of  mankind,  to 
discover  that  our  modem  chemistry,  which  i:  now 
dropping  its  mature  fruits  into  the  hands  of  Westcrti  en- 
terprise, had  its  root  in  the  religion  of  Tao  the  most 
extravagant  of  the  superstitions  of  the  East. 

We  shall  briefly  sketcli  the  rise  <i:id  development  of 
alchemy  in  China,  and  then  conclude  hy  comparinig 
it  with  the  leading  phases  of  the  same  pursuit  as  exhibited 
in  Western  countries. 

Originating  at  the  least  six  Inindred  years  before  the 
Christian  era,*  the  religion  of  Tao  still  exerts  a  powerful 
influence  over  the  mind  of  the  Chinese.  This  is  not  the 
place  to  discuss  cither  its  sober  tenets  or  its  wild  fan- 
tasies, hut  there  is  one  of  its  doctrines  that  connects  it 

The  reader  may  compare  tlii^  with  passages  quoted  in  the 
sequel  from  Taoist  books. 

N.  B.— Or,  in  the  first  line  of  the  description,  is  an  evident  allu- 
sion to  the  first  syllnhle  of  the  name,  which  the  vendor  takes  to 
mean  "  goMcti." 

*  It  is  iii(ligcn',us  to  China;  .and  thmigh  we  ,ire  unable  to  trace 
it  to  an  earlier  d.itc.  there  is  gn.xl  reason  to  lulieve  tli.it  it  is  as 
old  as  the  Chinese  race.  The  connection  of  alchemy  with  Tao- 
ism did  not  escape  the  notice  of  the  earlier  Jesuit  missionaries; 
l.ii!  the  Rev  Or  Edkins,  in  a  paper  on  Taoism  published  about 
forty  years  ago,  was  the  first.  I  believe,  to  suggest  a  ChtneK 
origin  for  the  alchemy  of  Europe. 


ALCHEMY  IN  CHINA 


53 


dosely  with  our  present  subject.  It  looks  on  the  soul  as 
tMily  a  more  refined  form  of  matter ;  rej^ards  the  soi'.l  and 
body  as  identical  in  substance,  and  maintains  tl.e  possi- 
bility of  preventing  their  dissolution  by  a  course  of  phy- 
sical discipline.  This  is  the  seed-thought  of  Chinese  al- 
chemy ;  for  this  materialistic  notion  it  was  that  first  led  the 
disciples  of  Laotze  to  investigate  the  properties  of 
matter. 

Its  development  is  easy  to  trace.  Man's  first  desire  is 
long  life— his  second  is  to  be  rich.  The  Taoist  com- 
menced with  the  former,  but  was  nut  lung  in  finding  his 
way  to  the  latter.  .\s  it  was  ])ossil)le  l)y  physical  disci- 
pline to  lengthen  the  periotl  of  life,  he  conceived  that 
the  process  might  be  carried  far  enough  to  result  in  cor- 
poreal immortality,  accompanied  hy  a  mastery  of  matter 
and  all  its  potencies.  The  success  of  the  process,  though, 
like  the  quest  of  the  Holy  Grail,  involving  moral  qualifi- 
cations, depended  mainly  un  diet  and  medicine;  and  in 
out  St  of  these  he  ransacked  the  forest,  penetrated  the 
earth,  and  explored  distant  seas.  The  natural  longing 
for  immortality  was  thus  made,  under  the  guiilance  of 
Taoism,  to  imparl  a  powerful  impulse  to  the  progress  of 
discovery  in  three  departments  of  science — botany,  min- 
eralogy, and  geography.  Nor  did  the  other  great  object 
of  pursuit  remain  far  in  the  rear.  A  few  simple  experi- 
ments, such  as  the  precipitation  of  copper  from  the  oil  of 
vitriol  by  the  application  of  iron,  and  the  blanching  of 
metals  hy  the  fumes  of  mercury,  suggested  the  pcssibility 
of  transforming  the  haser  metals  into  gold.*  This 

•Science  is  not  opposed  to  the  abstract  theory  of  tniinnnita- 
tiMI.    Indeed,  the  modern  chemist  has  btin  led  by  tlie  phe- 
noai'  i>  of  allotropy  and  is unerism,  not  to  speak  of  other  con- 
•     -.    >ns,  almost  to  accept  as  a  principle  what  he  lately  de- 
.    as  a  groundless  assumption  of  his  ancient  forerunner— 


54  THE  LORE  OK  CATHAY 

br^.u^bt  on  the  stage  another,  and,  if  possible,  a  more 
tntrgetic,  motive  for  investij?ation.  The  bare  idea  of 
acquiring  untold  riches  hy  such  easy  iiu-ans  inspired  with 
a  l<ind  of  frenzy  mi;  -Is  that  ere  hardly  capable  of  the 
loftier  conception  of  iminortahty.  It  liad,  moreover,  the 
effect  of  directing  attention  particularly  to  the  study  of 
minerals,  the  most  pmlitic  fiehl  fur  chemical  discovery. 

Whether  in  the  vegetal)le  or  the  mineral  kingdom,  the 
researches  of  the  Chinese  alchemists  were  guided  by  one 
simple  principle— the  analogy  of  man  to  material  nature. 
As  in  their  view  the  scul  was  only  a  more  refined  species 
of  matter,  and  was  endowed  with  such  wondrous  powers, 
so  every  object  in  nature,  they  arirued.  must  he  possessed 
of  a  soul,  an  essence  or  spirit,  which  controls  its  growth 
and  ilevelopment— a  something  not  unlike  the  essentia 
quinta  of  Western  alchemy.  I  his  they  !)elieved  to  be  the 
case,  not  only  with  animals,  which  display  som-  of  the 

viz.,  that  a  fundamenul  unity  underlies  many,  if  not  all  ot,  the 
forms  of  matter.   On  this  subject  see  two  interesting  papers  in 

the  voUinu'  of  .Vu/  .m-  for  1870  (pp.  593.  625)  on  the  question 
••Are  the  Elements  KKimnt.iry  ?  "  The  writer  speaks  approv- 
ingly of  the  hypothesis  of  onuwal  matter  having  a  molecular  or 
atomic  structure;  all  the  molecules  being  uniform  n  size  and  m 
shape,  but  not  all  possessed  nf  the  same  amount  of  motion— tlie 
difference  of  their  motions  giving  rise  to  all  the  properties  of  the 
various  elements.  The  speculation  which  resolves  matter  into 
force  tends  in  the  same  direction.  "  I  n'.ust  confess,"  says  Pro- 
fessor Cook.  ■•  tliat  I  am  rather  drawn  to  that  view  of  nature 
which  has  favor  with  many  of  the  most  eminent  physicists  of  the 
present  time,  and  which  sees  in  the  Cosmos,  besides  mind,  only 
two  essentially  distinct  beings— namely,  matter  and  energy; 
which  regards  all  matter  as  om,  and  all  energy  as  one;  and 
which  refers  the  qualities  of  substances  to  the  affections  of  the 
Otlf  substratum  ;,u>:Unr:!  'y  the  larying  play  of  forces"  (Lec- 
tures on  the  New  Chemistry,  lecture  iv..  International  Series). 


ALCHEMY  IN  CHINA  55 


attributes  of  mind,  but  with  plants,  which  extract  their 

apijropriate  nouri  ^llmc•^t  from  tlic  varth,  and  transform  it 
into  fruits;  and  the  same  with  minerals,  which  they  re- 
garded as  generated  in  the  womb  of  the  earth.   It  was  to 
this  half-spiritual,  half-material  theory  that  they  had  re- 
cuiirsf  to  account  for  t!ic  transformations  that  are  per- 
pttnally  going  on  in  every  department  of  nature.   As  the 
active  principle  in  each  object  was  so  potent  in  efTccting 
the  changes  wliicli  we  constantly  observe,  they  imajjined 
that  it  might  attain  to  a  condition  of  higher  development 
and  greater  efficiency.    Such  an  upward  tendency  was, 
in  fact,  perpetually  at  work;  and  all  things  were  striving 
to  ■■  purge  off  their  baser  fires  "  and  enter  on  a  higher 
and  purer  state.  Nor  were  they  merely  striving  to  clothe 
themselves  vvitli  material  forms  of  a  higher  order.  Matter 
itself  was  constantly  passing  the  limits  of  sense  and 
putting  on  the  character  of  conscious  spirit.   This  idea 
threw  over  the  face  of  nature  a  glow  of  poetry.  It 
awakened  the  torpid  imagination  and  created  an  epoch 
in  literature.    It  kindled  the  fancy  of  Chuangtze,  in- 
spired the  eloquence  of  Lii-tsu,  and  it  figures  in  a  thou- 
sand shapes  among  the  gracrful  tales  of  the  Liao-chai. 
It  filled  the  earth  with  fairies  and  genii.    An  easy  step 
connected  them  with  those  mysterious  points  of  light 
which  in  all  ages  have  excited  so  powerfully  the  hopes 
and  fears  of  the  human  race.   Astrology  became  wedded 
to  alchemy,  and  the  five  principal  planets  bear  in  the 
current  language  of  the  present  tlay  the  names  of  the 
elements  over  which  they  are  regarded  as  presiding. 

In  China,  as  elsewhere,  alchemy  has  always  been  an 
occult  science.  Its  students  have  been  pledged  to  secrecy, 
and  thi  ir  knowledge  transmitted  mainly  by  means  of  oral 
tradition,  each  adept  tracing  his  hneage  back  to  Huang 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


Ti  (B.  c.  2700)  or  Kuaiig  Lh'cngtzi ,  as  the  Freemason 
(k-duces  his  pedigree  from  Solomon  or  Hiram  of  Tyre.* 

riieir  doctrines,  like  the  delicate  beauties  .  -onie 
Eastern  climes,  were  never  allowed  to  go  abruail  without 
being  covered  with  a  veil.  They  were  wrapped  in  folds 
of  impenetrable  mystery,  and  expres-.^l.  l"!  the  nw-x 
part,  in  the  measured  lines  and  metaphorical  language  ^ 
poetry.  Still,  in  spite  of  every  precaution  that  pride  or 
jealc^y  was  able  to  si^gest,  some  of  their  secrets  would 
-radiiallv  uuze  out.  and  many  of  the  rules  for  working 
metals  now  in  common  use  bear  in  their  very  terms  the 
stamp  of  an  alchemic  parentage. 

After  this  cursi  rv  survey,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  intro- 
duce a  few  extracts  from  native  authors,  professors  of 
the  mysterious  lore,  in  order  to  ascertain  how  far  they 
corroborate  the  foregoing'  view;-,  but  '  specially  to  aiil  us 
in  deciding  whether  any  real  connection  is  to  be  traced 
between  the  Chinese  and  European  schools  of  alchemy. 

I.  FROM   KAO  SHANGTZE. 

The  Secret  of  Immortality.^ 

"  The  body  is  the  dwelling-iilace  of  life;  the  spirits  are 
the  essence  of  life;  and  the  soul  is  the  master  of  life. 

•  liiMiiR  Ti  is  at  least  semi-mythical.  The  earliest  historical 
s(.vtriign  wlio  became  a  votary  of  alchemy  was  Ch'in  Shih 
Huang,  the  buiUUr  i>f  tlie  CwaI  W.ill.  R.  C.  J-'o. 

tThese  extracts  are  not  arranged  in  the  order  of  time  The 
antiquity  o£  the  system  will  he  considered  in  another  pl.ice;  and 
I  begin  with  two  from  writers  whose  age  I  am  not  able  to  fix 
with  prpcision.  For  the  citations  from  both  I  am  indebted  to  a 
(■Miiii.i!:iMoii.  in  twelve  vubiiiuN  tiitiilol  The  Elixir  or  Quintes- 
sence of  tbe  Philosophers.  .XincMig  the  philosophers  eited,  those 
who  favored  alchemy  are  in  a  very  small  minority. 


ALCHEMY  IN  CHINA 


57 


When  the  spirits  are  exhausted,  the  body  becomes  sick ; 
when  the  soul  is  in  repose,  the  spirits  keep  their  place; 
and  when  the  spirits  are  concentrated,  the  soul  becomes 
indestructible.  Those  who  seek  the  elixir  imist  imitate 
the  Yin  and  Yang  [the  active  and  passive  principles  in 
nature]  and  learn  the  harmony  of  numbers.  They  must 
govern  the  soul  and  unite  their  spirit.  If  the  soul  is  a 
chariot,  the  spirits  are  its  liorses.  When  the  soul  and 
spirits  are  properly  yoked  together,  you  are  immortal." 

II.  FROM  TANTZE. 

The  Power  of  Miracles. 

"  The  clouds  are  a  dragon,  the  wind  a  tiger.  Mind  is 
the  mother,  and  matter  the  child.  Wben  the  mother 
summons  the  child,  will  it  dare  to  disobey  ?  Those  who 
would  expel  the  spirits  of  evil  must  (by  the  force  of  their 
mind)  summon  the  spirits  of  the  five  elements.  Those 
who  would  conquer  serpents  must  obtain  the  inlluences 
of  the  five  planets.  By  this  means  the  Yin  and  Yang, 
the  dual  forc-.-s  of  nature,  may  l)e  controlled;  wiiuls  and 
clouds  collected ;  mountain>  and  hills  torn  up  by  the  roots; 
and  rivers  and  seas  made  to  spring  out  of  the  ground. 
Still  the  external  manifestation  of  this  power  is  not  so 
good  as  the  consciousness  of  its  possession  within." 

III.    FROM  THE  SAME. 

The  Adept  Superior  to  Hunger,  Cold,  and  Sickness. 

"  He  inhales  the  fine  essence  of  matter,  how  can  he  be 
hungry?  He  is  warmed  by  the  fire  of  his  own  soul, 
how  can  he  be  cold?  Mis  five  vitals  are  fed  on  the 
essence  of  the  five  elements,  how  can  he  be  sick  ? " 


$« 


I'HL  LORE  OK  CATHAY 


IV.  FROM  LU  TSU,  OF  THE  t'aNG  DYNASTY.* 

Patience  Essential  to  Success. 

"Would  you  !Mck  tlie  golden  tan  (the  elixir],  it  is 
not  easy  to  obtain.  The  three  powers  [sun,  moon,  and 
s-tai-]  must  si'vcii  times  repeat  their  fo()tsti])s ;  and  the 
lour  stasuns  nine  times  complete  their  circuit. 

"  You  must  wash  it  white  and  bum  it  red ;  when  one 
draught  will  fjivc  you  ten  tliousand  a^^cs.  and  you  wiU 
be  wafted  beyond  the  sphere  of  sublunary  things." 

V.    FROM  THE  SAME. 

The  Necessity  of  a  tiling  Teacher. 

"Every  one  seeks  ion^  life,  but  the  secret  is  not  easy 
to  find.  If  you  covet  the  precious  things  of  heaven,  you 
must  reject  the  treasures  of  earth.  You  must  kindle  the 
fire  that  springs  from  water,  f  and  evolve  the  Yin  con- 

*  Lii-Tsu  (or  Lii-Yen)  ilourished  in  the  latter  half  ot  the  eighth 
century.    In  early  life  respected  as  a  scholar  and  a  magistrate, 

and  111  l.itiT  y<.;u-.i  fanud  for  the  i Iikhkiicc  of  his  style  anil  the 
elevatiiin  of  hi;,  ehuraiter,  he  tin!  much  to  revive  the  decaying 
crecht  of  the  "  school  of  the  genii."  Mis  works  are  vohiminous 
and  well  known,  but,  like  most  o£  those  ascribed  to  the  great 
masters  of  Taoism,  probably  comprehend  much  that  is  not  genu- 
ine. 

fThis  phrase  reminds  us  of  a  quaint  piece  of  doggerel  from 
the  iKii  of  George  Ri|iley.  a  noted  alcluniist  of  Kiigland,  who 
died  ii.  i4<jo,  notwithst.inding  the  medicines  recommended  in  his 
two  books  on  Alchymie  at.d  Aurum  Potabii'.  The  following 
are  a  few  of  his  inconiprehensihle  verses  : 

"  The  well  imi'.t  liretitie  in  water  clear. 

Take  good  heed,  for  this  they  fere. 

The  fire  with  water  hrent  shall  be. 

The  earth  on  fire  shall  be  set 

And  water  with  fire  shall  be  knit. 


ALCHEMY  IN  CHINA  59 


tained  within  the  Yang.  One  word  from  a  sapient  master, 
and  you  possess  a  drauf^t  of  the  golden  water." 

Vt.    FROM  THE  SAME. 

The  Chief  Elements  in  Alchemy. 

"  All  things  originate  from  earth.  If  you  can  get  at 
the  radical  principle,  the  spirit  of  the  green  dragon  is 
iiuTcury,  aiid  the  water  of  the  white  tiller  *  is  lead.  The 
knowing  ones  will  bring  mother  and  child  together,  when 
earth  will  become  heaven,  and  you  will  be  extricated  from 
the  power  of  matter." 

VII.    FROM  THF  SAME. 

Description  of  the  Philosopher's  Stone:  Self-culture  Nec- 
essary to  Obtmn  it. 

"  I  must  diligently  plant  my  own  field.  There  is 
within  it  a  spiritual  germ  that  may  live  a  thousand  years. 
Its  flower  is  like  yellow  gold.  Its  bud  is  not  large,  but 
the  seeds  are  round  [globules  of  mercury.']  and  like  to  a 
spotle.  s  gem.  Its  growth  depends  on  the  soil  of  the  cen- 
tral palace  [the  heart],  but  its  irrigation  must  proceed 

Of  the  white  stone  and  the  red 
Lo,  here  is  the  true  deed  I " 

*  Yin  and  Ving  are  the  dual  forces  which  control  the  elements 

of  nature.  Though  generally  referred  to  the  sexual  system,  their 
>  hit  f  syinh  Is  are  the  sun  and  moon,  and  the  origin,-il  signi- 
t'lcitiim  of  the  terms  is  light  ind  darkness.  The  "tiger"  and 
"  dragon "  are  synonyms  for  the  oft-repeated  Yin  and  Yang. 
Their  use  in  this  sense  is  comparatively  ancient,  as  we  may  gather 
from  the  title  of  a  book  still  extant,  by  the  historian  Pan  Ku,  in 
the  first  century  of  our  era. 


6o  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


from  a  hipher  fountain  (the  reason).  After  nine  years  of 
lultivatiini,  nuit  and  hraiuli  may  be  transplanted  to  the 
heaven  uf  the  greater  genii." 

VIII.    FROM  A  BIOGRAPHER  OF  LU-TSU. 

Spi'akiii^  111'  the  lalxtrs  of  \\\>  ^rcat  master,  lu'  says, 
"  Among  liie  eigiil  stones,  he  made  most  use  of  einnahar, 
hceaiise  from  that  he  extracted  nu-rcury ;  and  amonp  the 
tivi  iiR'lal.s.  he  made  most  u-c  <<i  Kad,  hceaii>e  irniii  that 
lie  obtained  silver.  'I'lie  tire  of  the  hean  [liliHxlj  is  re<l 
as  cinnabar;  and  the  wafer  of  thi'  kidmys  [uriiu'l  is  dark 
as  lead.  To  these  must  h-'  iiMcd  sulphur,  that  the  com- 
pound may  tie  eflicaci  tii^.  I  ra.l  is  the  mother  of  silver, 
mercury,  the  ciiild  of  einnahar.  Lead  represents  the  in- 
lluencc  of  the  kidneys,  mercury  that  of  the  heart." 

We  nni^t  lure  imrocluce  a  few  extracts  from  the  I'/u 
Chen  Pifii.  a  work  which  still  holds  the  place  of  a  text- 
IxKjk  among  the  followers  of  Laotze.  They  will  serve 
to  indicate  the  spirit  and  aim  of  these  oi)eratii ms,  tlioui^h 
the  processes  are  still  carefully  concealed.  In  fact,  all 
that  is  given  to  the  public  seems  merely  designed  to  in- 
flame the  imapinati'in.  and  tj  induce  readers  to  place 
themselves  under  the  instruction  of  a  Taoist  master. 

I.  The  Great  Motive. — "  However  long  this  mortal  life, 
its  events  are  all  uncertain  lie  who  yestcrflay  bestrode 
liis  horse  so  grandly  at  the  head  of  the  street,  to-day  is 
a  corpse  in  the  cofifin.  His  wife  and  his  wealth  are  his 
no  longer.  His  sins  must  take  their  course,  and  self- 
deception  will  do  no  hhI.  If  vou  do  not  seek  the  threat 
remedv.  how  will  you  find  it  ?  li  you  find  out  the  method 
anfl  do  not  prepare  it,  how  unwise  are  you  f " 

J.  ./  i'lUiiicatioii. — "  If  tlie  virtuous  follow  a  f;dse  doc- 
trine, they  reclaim  it;  hut  if  the  vicious  profess  a  true 
doctrine,  they  pervert  it.   So  it  is  with  the  golden  elixir: 


ALCHEMY  IN  CHINA 


6t 


a  deviation  of  an  incli  leads  to  the  vTv«r  <>i  .i  miU  If 
I  ^iKvotMl.  tliiii  mv  fate  1  ill  my  own  hands,  and  ir,\  Injcly 
may  last  as  long  as  the  heavens.  But  the  vulvar  pervert 
this  doctrine  to  the  Rratification  of  tow  desires  [such  aa 
till. si-  for  wealth  and  pleasiuei 

3.  Onlliuc  of  I'roccss.  "  In  the  gt)ld- furnace  you  must 
separate  the  mercury  from  the  cinnabar,  and  in  the  gemmy 
hat'.i  vou  nii:>l  iTici;  ite  the  silver  from  the  water. 
Wield  the  tires  of  liiis  divine  wi.rk  is  not  the  task  of  a 
day.  But  out  of  the  midst  of  the  pool  suddenly  the  sun 
rises."  * 

No  one  at  all  acquainted  with  tlie  operations  of  chem- 
istry can  fail  to  remark  how  much  is  implied  in  this 
reference  to  the  prerinitatioii  of  silver.  Nor  ran  any 
one  faiiiiliar  with  thf  'aiigiiaRe  of  Western  alchemists 
avoid  being  struck  hy  the  similarity  of  the  terms  here 
employed.  As  he  reads  of  "separating  meiciiry  from 
cinnnhar."  "  preeiitiiatiiiR  silver."  "  wielding  the  fires  of 
the  divine  w<  rk,"  the  "  gemmy  hath, "  and  the  "  sun  rising 
out  of  the  pool."  does  he  not  fancy  himself  perusing  a 
fragment  from  I.ti''v  or  Alhr-tn>  describing  the  balneum 
maria  and  the  production  ot  gold? 

We  add  three  more  to  our  series  of  illtistrattve  ex- 
tracts : 

1.  The  Reason  for  Obscure  and  f-iguralhe  Phrase- 
ology.—"  Tht  holy  sage  was  afraid  of  betraying  the 
secrets  of  heaven.  He  acordinK^y  seis  forth  tin  true 
Fin  and  Yan^  under  the  i'  aijes  of  the  white  tiger  and 

♦  ,\  few  years  ago  I  made  tin  ■.aiiKiintame  "f  a  KianRsi  man 
by  the  n.ime  of  Hsiung.  who  had  pvihlishi  <!  a  bonk  of  some  literary- 
merit,  and  was  withal  an  ardent  student  of  the  occult  science.  A 
manuscript  volume  of  his  own  compilation,  which  he  permitted 
me  to  exnniine.  coni.iitii-.|.  among  other  diagrams,  one  which  rep- 
resented the  sun  rising  out  of  a  smoking  furnace — showing  that 
the  hermetic  symbol  for  gold  is  the  same  in  China  as  in  Eurtve. 


6a  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


the  gntn  dragon.  And  the  harmony  of  the  two  chords 
he  rc|>re<irnt'  under  the  symbols  of  the  true  lead  and  the 

tnir  mercury. "  * 

2.  Nature  of  the  Inward  Harmony. — "  The  two  things 

ti>  lie  iiii'tfd  .irc  7i  (//i  and  .  0,  tlic  »ir  and  tlic  not  mc. 
W  lun  tluse  combine,  tlic  passions  arc  in  liarinoii)  with 
nature,  and  the  elements  are  complotc." 

In  other  pa- we  have  notii.d  tlif  oiitiTf'pi)ing 
of  a  moral  idea.  In  this  we  find  a  mater\ali.-!ic  tloctrine 
suddenly  metamorphosed  into  the  most  subtle  form  of 
pantheistic  ideali$;m. 

3.  Self -discipline  the  Best  Illi.rir  (from  Tantze,  not 
in  If'it  Chen  Pien) — "  Anionp  liie  arts  of  the  alchemist  is 
that  iif  preparinp  ,ui  elixir  which  may  be  used  as  a  siih- 
stitiitc  for  fond.  This  is  certainly  true;  yet  the  ability 
to  enjoy  ahundanct  or  endure  l  unger  comes  not  from 
the  elixir,  but  from  the  fixed  purpose  of  him  who  uses 
it.  When  a  man  has  arri-.  '  d  at  such  a  stape  of  pn  icss 
that  to  have  and  not  to  lia\.  nrc  the  same;  when  life  and 
death  are  one;  when  feeling  is  in  harmony  with  nature, 
and  the  inner  and  the  outer  wori  united — then  he  can 
escape  the  thraldom  of  matter,  and  leave  lun,  moon,  and 
stars  behind  his  back.  To  him  it  will  then  be  of  no  conse- 
quence whether  he  eat  a  hundred  times  in  a  day,  or  only 
once  in  a  hr.ndred  daNs  "    We  mijjhl  fill  volnmps  with 

•  h  is  ciirii'ti--  to  sec  imw  Western  alchemists  exliibit  the  same 
phase  of  feeling.  Hnwc.s,  an  old  writer,  qtioted  in  Mr.  Lowell's 
New  England  of  Two  Centuries  Ago,  expresses  himself  thus  in 
a  letter  to  Gov.  Winthrop  of  Mass.nchtisetts :    "  Dear  friend,  I 

(ifsirc  with  all  ttiy  li'-.TPt  that  I  nii(jht  write  plainer  to  ynn  ;  Imt 
in  discovcrinR  the  mystery.  I  may  diminish  its  majesty,  rxnil  Rive 
(leeasion  to  the  profane  to  anusc  it.  if  it  should  fall  into  unworthy 
hands."  The  mystery  was  the  unit^'  of  matter.  He  adds,  "Ai 
there  is  all  good  to  be  found  in  unity,  and  all  evil  in  duality  and 
multiplicity,  pkaenix  ilia  admiranda  sola  semper  existit." 


ALCHEMY  IN  CHINA 


sitnilar  extracts  witliout.  we  iear,  adding  much  to  the 
information  of  our  readers. 

The  comixjsition  of  tlic  elixir  was  a  secret  which  the 
alchemist  did  not  care  to  divulKe.  It"  tluntnio.  we  sock 
f  ir  ()rciiM  directions  for  its  preparation  in  the  wnlings 
of  a  profchscd  adept,  we  sick  in  vain. 

There  is,  indeed,  om  ft-rejH-ated  f-.t  nuda,  which  ap- 
pears to  be  absurdly  simple.  It  is  this  :  "  I'b.  8  08..  Hg.  yi 
lb.;  mix  thoroughly,  and  the  combination  will  result  in  a 
mass  of  the  golden  elixir."  But  it  ceases  to  be  simple 
when  we  leant  tliat  \«  >th  r.'.rtals  and  prMp,  .rtin,w  arc  to  be 
taken  in  a  mystical  &eii.-e  .  tliat.  in  fact,  instead  of  indi- 
cating t^e  materials  of  the  elixir,  they  only  point  to  the 
precise  ,..  iinent  when  the  final  t  luh  D  he  pivcn  to  a 
complicated  process — viz..  one  minute  after  the  full  of 
the  mocwi.  If  this  resolves  itself  into  "  moonshme,"  an- 
other, which  has  the  a'r  of  heing  mor^  in  (U tail,  is  still 
less  luminous.  "  I'lant  the  Vang  and  gmw  the  >'«'»;  cul- 
tivate and  cherish  the  ,,.ccious  scrd  When  it  springs 
up  it  shows  a  yellow  bud ;  th-  hud  produces  mercury. 
an(  he  mercury  crystallizes  ii.iu  indes  like  grains  of 
golden  mdlet.  One  ^rain  is  t-  i  -  is  at  a  dose,  and 
the  doses  repeated  for  a  li  md:  '  -  hen  the  body 
will  he  transforuT'd  and  the  b-  ,  rtcd  into  gdd. 

Body  and  spirit  \sdl  both  be  eniiowed  with  miraculous 
properties,  and  their  duration  will  have  no  end."  These 
recipes  arc  both  from  standard  tcxt-bookb  of  the  Taoist 
school. 

Ko  Hung,  of  the  fourth  century,  i'  one  of  tlic  mc-^i 

voluminous  writers  on  the  subject,  li  vvcs  nine  vane- 
ties  of  the  tan,  but  no  clear  account  of  ihe  preparation  of 
any  of  them.  The  following  extract  from  his  work  may 
serve  t(i  show  the  kind  of  reasoning  h\  which  he  and  hu 
fellows  suffered  themselves  to  be  deluded: 


64  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


'■  1  formerly  tliouj^'Iit  tlic  Taoist  mysterj-  was  intended 
to  iklude  siiiipk'  folk,  and  tliat  tlurc  was  nothing  in  it 
but  empty  wunls ;  but  wlicn  1  saw  tlu-  F.mpcror  Wu  sub- 
ject Tsu  Tse  and  others  to  a  fast  of  luariy  a  muiith — 
tliiir  luiiiplexioii  t-Miitimtin;^  fresh  ami  tlieir  streiif^tli  iin- 
al)ateii—  I  said  there  was  iiu  reason  why  they  slioiihl  not 
extend  the  fast  to  fifty  years. 

"  Aimtlier  I'anist.  Kaii  Shih,  placed  a  nmulier  of  fish 
in  hoiling  oil;  smne  of  them  having  first  swallowed  a 
few  drops  of  an  elixir,  swam  almut  as  if  they  were  in  the 
water,  the  others  were  hoi'i  d  >-u  that  tlu  y  could  he  eat<'n. 

"  Silk-wonns  taking  the  same  ■iiediciiie  lived  for  ten 
months:  chickens  and  .M'mig  d<ig^  taking  it  ceased  to 
griiu  ;  ami  a  wiiiie  dog  on  taking  it  turned  black;  all  of 
which  shows  that  there  arc  tilings  in  heaven  and  earth 
siir])assing  our  comprehension.  WCiild  that  1  could 
break  the  fetters  of  >en>e  and  give  my  whole  heart  to  the 
pursuit  of  the  ilixir  of  life!  " 

We  find  a  more  explicit  account  of  the  composition 
of  the  elixir  in  the  Ko  Chili  Cltiiif;  VHaii.  or  Mirror  of 
Scii'nlific  DisctAcry  ;  hut  hen'  again  \w  arc  not  favored 
with  anything  he\i>nd  a  harren  inventory  of  ingredients, 
without  any  statement  of  proportion  or  manipulation. 

"  The  elixir  of  the  eight  j)recious  things,"  says  this 
author,  "  is  so  callfd  because  it  contains  einnahar,  orpi- 
ment.  realgar,  sulphur,  saltpetre,  ammonia,  empty  green 
jan  ore  of  cobalt],  and  mothcr-of-clouds  [a  kind  of 
mica].' 

This  and  the  otlu  r  passages  al)ove  cited  throw,  we  con- 
fess, very  little  light  on  any  (pustion  of  practical  science; 
hut  they  are  not  imiinportant  in  relation  to  the  history  of 
science,  indicating  as  they  do  the  spirit  .ind  aims  of  the 
Chinese  alchemists — the  most  enthusiastic,  and,  as  we 


ALCHEMY  IN  CHINA  65 


think,  the  earliest,  explorers  in  a  region  which  has  proved 
to  be  one  of  in".\liaiistil)le  fertility. 

The  results  of  tlieir  labors  in  the  way  of  chemical  dis- 
covery it  may  not  be  easy  to  determine ;  tIiouj;li  it  is  safe 
to  af^iriTi  that,  for  w  bat  tbey  knew  on  that  sr.!)ject  prior  to 
their  recent  iniercuurse  with  the  \\  e-^t,  the  Cliitiese  arc 
mainly  indebted  to  those  early  devotees  of  the  experi- 
mental philosophy  who  passed  their  lives  ainotipf  the  fumes 
of  the  alembic.  The  skill  which  the  Chmese  exhibit  in 
metallurgy,  their  brilliant  dye-stuffs  and  numerous  ptg- 
nirnt>- ;  tiieir  early  kniiw  leds^e  of  gunpowder,  alcohol, 
arsenic,  Glauber's  salt,  calomel,  and  corrcive  sublimate; 
their  pyrotechny ;  their  asphyxiating  and  anaesthetic  com- 
pounds— all  gi'  e  evidence  of  no  contemptible  proficiency 
in  practical  '  ia-mistry.* 

In  their  Inraks  of  curious  receipts,  we  find  instructions 
for  the  manufacture  of  sytnpatlietic  inks,  for  removing 
stain**,  compounding  and  alloving  tnetals.  counterfeiting^ 
Ri)ld,  whitening  copper,  overlaying  the  baser  with  the 
precious  metals,  etc.  In  some  of  these  recipes  a  caution 
is  addeil  that  neither  "  women,  cats,  nor  chickens  "  be 
allowed  to  api)roach  during  the  process,  obviously  a 
relic  of  alchemistic  superstition. 

The  1  i-rmes  of  China  has  no  female  ilisciples,  tl-.ough 
Kurope  can  boast  the  names  of  not  a  few.  The  alchemist 
of  China  has  generally  been  a  celibate,  and  very  fre- 
quently a  religfious  ascetic,  to  whom  the  life-giving  elixir, 

*  T- 0  D.ivis's  Chinisc.  ch.  xviii..  for  .1  very  iiili  roNtinR  account 
of  till'  prtp.iral ion  of  caloim  !  (clilondf  of  nuTciiry)  by  a  Chinese 
chemist,  and  by  a  truly  Cbiiicsc  (irnccss.  In  the  same  chapter 
the  attthor  sketches  the  f.intasttc  physical  theories  cf  the  Chinese, 
and  adds,  All  this  looks  veiy  much  as  if  the  philosophy  of  our 
forefathers  was  derived  intermediately  from  China." 


66  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

rather  than  the  aurific  stone,  was  the  chief  object  of  pur- 


suit. 


Lu-tsu,  one  of  the  most  eminent,  is  said  to  have  earned 
immortality  by  rejecting  the  art  of  making  gold.* 

In  the  Chinese  svstein  tliere  are  two  priK-esses— the 
one  inward  and  spiritual,  the  other  outward  and  mate- 
rial. To  obtain  the  greater  elixir,  involving  the  attain 
ment  of  iininnrtality.  both  must  be  combined;  but  the 
lesser  elixir,  vvliich  answers  to  the  philosoi)her's  stone,  or 
a  nuiKical  eontrol  over  the  powers  of  nature,  might  be 
procured  with  less  pains.  Uuth  processes  were  pursue.l 
in  .ecln-ion.  conimonU  in  the  recesses  of  the  mountams. 
the  term  for  adepts  si};nii>i"K  "  mountain  men."' 

In  a  discourse  on  tnetal.  ih  one  of  tlie  works  .ibove 
cited  we  are  toM  that  tiie  seminal  principle  of  gold  first 
assumes  the  form  of  tpucksilver.  Exposed  to  the  mflu- 
ence  of  the  moon,  it  is  liquid;  but  when  subjected  to  the 
action  of  the  pure  Van:^.  the  sun  or  the  male  essence.^  it 
solidifies  and  becomes  ncUow  gold.  Those  who  desire 
to  convert  quicksilver  into  gold  shuuld  carry  on  their 
operations  anion^  the  mountains,  that  the  effluences  from 
the  stones  may  assist  the  process. 

Nothing  seems  to  be  required  in  addition  to  tba  inci- 
dental proofs  alreadx  a-Muce-l  to  establish  the  existence 
•  As  the  legend  goes,  shortly  after  commencinR  the  study  of 
,he  art,  he  was  uut  hy  nne  ..f  the  old  genii,  wh-  offered  to  impart 
to  h.tn  th.  threat  .  Tel  of  transmutation  "  But.  a.skcd  the 
voune  ma.,  •  will  .lot  the  artifici.M  Rold  relapse  to  lt»  original 
elements  in  the  e.ntrse  ..f  time'"  Yes,-  replied  the  Kenu,,. 
"but  that  need  not  concern  you.  as  n  will  not  happen  uutil  after 
,en  thou^and  ages."  "  I  decline  it  then.-  said  l-u  tsu.  '  1  would 
r vh.r  hve  in  poverty  than  Iring  a  loss  on  my  fellow-men,  though 
af.'er  ten  ihon.au.l  aRes  -  The  nohle  sense  of  right  w.is  more 
„,rr,t..,,-.  'h.n  anv  niuui.  r  of  -ham  ehanties;  and  the  youth 
who  h.ld  euuee  enoUKh  to  spurn  the  glided  bait  Wa»  at  onCt 
admitted  to  the  heaven  of  the  genii. 


ALCHEMY  IN  CHINA 


67 


of  a  coui\cctio)i  between  the  alcluiny  of  Europe  and  that 
of  CHiina;  stiH.  a  few  considerations  in  the  way  of  com- 
farison  tiiay  serve  to  make  the  nature  and  extent  of  that 
Cdtiiu  cf.i  n     iiiR-wliat  mori- api)arcnt. 

1.  l  lif  study  of  alchemy  (Hd  not  make  its  appearance 
in  KurojH*  until  it  had  been  in  full  vigoi  in  China  for  at 
least  six  cciii iirivs.  N'or  did  it  appear  there,  according 
to  llit.'  lic-t  aiitlidritiis,  until  tin-  fourth  ccnturv,  when 
intircfnirM'  with  the  f  ar  East  had  hccome  sumcvshat  fre- 
quent. It  entered  Europe,  moreover,  by  way  of  Byzan- 
tium and  Ak'xaiidria,  the  pla  o  in  which  that  liitiTcnursc 
was  chudy  centred.  At  a  later  day  it  was  revived  in  the 
West  by  the  irruption  of  the  Saracens,  who  may  be  sup- 
posed to  have  had  hetter  opportunities  for  heciiining'  ac- 
<liiaiiited  with  it  in  consequence  of  being  nearer  to  its 
original  stnirce.  One  of  the  most  renowned  seats  of  al- 
chemic industry  was  I'.afjdad  while  it  was  the  seat  of  the 
calii)hate.  An  extensive  commerce  was  at  that  period 
carried  on  between  Arabia  and  China.  In  the  eighth 
century  embassies  were  interchanged  between  the  calii>hs 
and  the  emperors.  Colonies  of  .Xrans  were  estahiished  in 
the  seafHjrts  of  the  Empire;  and  the  grave  of  a  cousin  of 
Mahomet  remains  at  Canton  as  a  monument  of  that  early 
intercourse. 

2.  The  objects  of  pursuit  were  in  both  schools  identi- 
cal, and  in  either  case  twofold — immortality  and  gold. 

fn  Eurojie  the  former  was  the  less  prominent  liecaii-c 
the  people,  being  in  possession  of  Christianity,  had  a  suf- 
ficiently vivid  faith  in  a  future  life  to  satisfy  their  in- 
stinctive longings  without  having  recourse  to  question- 
able arts. 

3.  In  either  school  there  were  two  elixirs,  the  greater 
and  the  les-;,  and  the  properties  ascribed  to  them  corre- 
spon<led  very  closely. 


68  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


4.  The  principles  underlying  Imtli  systems  are  identical 
in  the  composite  nature  oi  the  nut  il-^,  uul  ihcir  vfgetation 
from  a  scinin.-I  jjiri  i.  In.lfcd.  the  cliaractiTS  tsing,  for 
the  gcrni,  and  tai,  for  the  matrix,  which  i mistantly  occur 
in  the  writings  of  Chinese  alchemists,  miKht  be  taken  for 
the  translation  of  terms  in  the  voeahiilary  of  the  Western 
school,  did  not  their  higher  antiijuity  forbid  the  hyi>o- 
thesis. 

5,  The  en<ls  in  view  being  the  same,  the  means  hv 
wliich  they  were  pursued  were  nearly  identical,  mercury 
and  lead  (to  which  sulphur  was  tertiary)  being  as  con- 
spicuous in  the  laboratories  of  the  as  111.  rourx  and 
sulphur  were  in  those  of  the  West.  It  is  of  Uss  signili- 
cance  to  add  that  many  other  substances  were  common  t<» 
both  schools  than  it  is  to  note  the  remarkable  coiiu  idetu  e 
that  in  Cliiiu  -e  as  in  iMiroiieau  alchemy  the  names  of  the 
principal  reagents  are  employed  in  a  mystical  sense.* 

fi.  Both  schools,  or  at  least  individuals  in  l)oth,  held 
the  stranpe  <loctriiu-  of  a  cm  U  -.f  ,  liaiicjes.  in  the  course 
of  which  the  precious  metals  revert  to  their  original  ele- 
ments. 

7.  r.otii  svsi.nis  were  closely  interwoven  with  astrolop;y. 

8.  ISoth  led  to  the  practice  of  magical  arts  and  un- 
funded charlatanism. 

9.  Uoth  dealt  in  language  of  .(lual  extravagance;  and 
the  st\le  of  F.uropean  alchemists,  so  unlike  the  sobriety 
of  thought  characteristic  uf  the  Western  mind,  would,  if 
consi«lered  ^ne,  furnish  ground  for  a  probable  conjcc- 

•  Robert  Rovle  (qiioted  in  .Va<«fv,  Jami.iry.  iH;;!  >s  uu^]>.:t 
ing  in  his  denunciation  of  '  those  sooty  empirics,  wh..  li  u.  i!u  ir 
eyes  darkened  and  their  brains  trouhled  with  the  -uu>kv  .1  ih.  11 
furnaces;  and  wlm  an-  wtit  m  evince  their  salt,  siiliihur,  and 
mercury  (to  wliicli  th.y  give  t)u-  cintinR  title  of  hypostatical 
principles)  to  Ise  the  triie  principle  of  things." 


ALCHEMY  IN  CHINA 


69 


ture  that  their  science  must  have  had  its  origin  in  the 

fervid  fancy  nf  an  <  >rii'nta!  iH'()i>le.* 

in  conclusiun,  granting  that  the  leading  ohjects  of  al- 
chemical pursuit  are  such  as  might  have  suggested  them- 
selves ti)  the  hnman  mind  in  any  country,  as  il  felt  its 
way  towards  an  actjuaintance  with  the  forces  of  nature, 
yet  the  similarity  of  the  circumstances  with  which  they 
are  fdiind  associalrd  in  tin-  W't  st  and  the  F.ast  f(irl)ids  the 
supposition  of  an  independent  origin.  Setting  aside  as 
untenable  the  claims  of  Europe  and  of  Western  Asia,  we 
regard  alchemy  as  uncjuestionahiy  a  product  01  the  re 
moter  East.  To  the  honor  of  being  its  birthplace,  India 
:>nd  Cliina  are  rival  claimants.  The  pretensions  of  the 
former  f  we  are  not  in  a  positicwi  to  estimate  by  direct 
investigation;  hut  they  appear  to  us  to  he  excluded  by 
the  |)rnposiiion,  of  whicii  tiiere  is  abundant  proof,  that 
the  alchemy  of  China  is  not  an  exotic,  but  a  genuine  pro- 
duct of  the  soil  of  tlutt  country. 

As  l)ef()re  remarked,  it  springs  from  Taoism,  an  in- 

•  riu'  wl  iiisical  iiU:i  cif  tin-  liiiiiiutnulu-,  which  was  so  promi- 
iioiit  ill  llu-  u.iiks  i.f  till'  later  aK!uiiiist>  of  the  West,  and  whidi 
plays  iuch  a  cun-pii  iinus  rult-  in  the  secomi  part  of  (nx'llie's 
Faust,  is  one  of  wlmii  I  cm  find  no  vtsliiie  in  the  records  of 
Eastern  alchemy.  In  the  writings  of  the  latter  school,  however, 
th<-  power  of  synthetic  creation  is  asserted  boldly  enough,  and 
tin  ilka  i>f  priiihu  iiiK  the  honiimculns,  i.  c.  of  creating  a  human 
hiiiiK  tiy  an  artilui.il  process,  i^,  in  fact,  only  a  particular  appli- 
cation of  the  priii.  iple 

t  That  niiich-lainenled  sinologue,  the  Lite  Mr.  Mayers.  fa\oi-. 
the  claim  of  India,  though,  alas!  it  is  no  longer  possible  to 
tinn  him  ns  to  the  grounds  of  his  opinion.  In  his  essay  on  the 
onuiii  of  ({iMipowdei-,  he  says.  '"  It  is  at  least  allowable  to  sur- 
nn-i-  tliat  llio-.i-  Hraliiiiiii  iluim-ts  who.  it  is  jlm^'St  fiwcd,  in- 
au.:ui ,Uiil  til,-  .wMii/i  (I'/.r  llu-  j'hili'Si'f'hfr' s  stoiw  and  the  elixir 
-  lice  m.iv  haM-  1m  1  11  tin-  ("ir^i  to  discover  what  secret  forces  are 
develoiR-d  in  the  fiery  union  lielween  sulphur  and  saltpetre." 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


digenous  religion ;  and  shows  itself  in  cK  arly  (lefin**!!  out- 

Vmv^.  if  not  in  full  maturity,  at  a  tinio  wlion  there  was 
little  or  no  intercourse  with  India.  I  lad  it  appeared  some 
centuries  later  simultaneously  with  the  introduction  of 
Buddhism,  there  mi^jlit  have  been  more  reason  to  look 
on  it  as  a  foreign  importation.  In  polar  antagonism  with 
the  idealistic  philosophy  of  Buddhn,  its  fundamental  tenets 
are  not  only  found  in  tlie  ancient  manual  of  Laotze,* 
they  are  distinctly  traceable  in  the  oldest  of  the  Confucian 
classics. 

In  the  /  Ching.  the  diagrams  of  wliicli  are  referred  to 
Fu  llsi.  ii.  c.  2Sof),  uiiile  the  text  dates  from  W  en  Wang, 
H.  r.  1150,  and  the  commentary  from  t'onfucius,  B.  c. 
500.  we  discover  at  length  what  appears  to  us  the  true 
source  of  tlinse  jirohfic  ideas  wliich  jirepaR  d  the  way  for 
our  modern  chemistry.  Its  name.  The  l'.iK>i<  of  C  liauges, 
is  suggestive;  and  we  find  throughout  its  contents  the 
vaKiH-  iil'-a  haii.^v  -ri  li.fil  l)y  the  more  definite  one 
of  "  transtorniation,"  tlie  key-W(jrd  of  alcliemy. 

In  the  very  first  section,  Wen  Wang  <lescants  on  the 
"changes  ami  traiisnnitatinns  of  tlie  creative  principle;" 
and  Confucius,  in  several  chapters  of  his  commentary, 
grows  elfHuieiU  over  the  same  theme.  "  How  great,"  he 
exclaims,  ■  is  cliange!  How  wnnderfid  is  change!  When 
lieaven  and  c.rth  wire  formed,  change  was  throned  in 
their  midst ;  and  shuuld  cluuige  cease  to  take  place,  heaven 
and  earth  would  soon  cease  tn  cxij-t."  "  The  diagrams," 
he  -^avs  attain,  "comprehend  the  profoundest  secrets  of 

♦  Thi-  faiiKiiis  p.'it,  r;iil<)tuii,  in  .1  well  known  ■-tanza,  ,isserts 
that  the  extravagances  o(  alchemy  arc  not  to  In-  found  there. 
\vt  the  iliniiKhtful  reader  cannot  fail  to  discover  its  latent  princi- 
fsptiKilly  the  effect  of  discipline  in  securing  an  ascendency 
ovi  r  ni.itti  r.  .ttu!  the  jinili  aii  pnwer  of  transmutation  hiildcii  in  Itif 
forces  'if  n.itMrc.  The  .•ilchinn>ts  all  claim  Laot/e  as  a  lineal 
anccistor.  though  they  derive  their  origin  (rom  a  remoter  source. 


ALCHEMY  IN  CHINA 


7« 


thv  universe;  anil  tlie  power  of  exciting  the  various  mo- 
tiuns  ot  tile  universe  depends  on  their  explanation:  the 
jx)wer  to  effect  transmutation  depends  on  the  understand- 
inj;  of  tile  diaj^ranis  of  changes."  Here,  in  a  word,  is 
tile  leading  i  lea  uf  the  /  Ching;  and,  at  the  same  time, 
the  general  object  of  Chinese  students  of  alchemy.  In- 
deed, s(j  thoroughly  arc  their  works  pervaded  by  the 
spirit  of  that  venerable  cj)itome  of  primitive  science  that 
it  is  imjKjssible  to  inistake  the  source  from  which  they 
derive  their  insi>iration.  The  Taoists.  without  a  dissent- 
ing voice,  reci '(^r„i;-t.  jt  tlu'  first  book  iti  tlie  canon  of 
their  .sect ;  and  the  Tyrant  of  Ch  in,  a  zealous  votary  of 
alchemy,  spared  the  /  Ching  from  the  flames  to  which 
he  consigned  all  the  otlier  writings  of  Confncins  ami  liis 
discii)!es.  W  e  have  therefore  no  hesitation  in  afiirining 
that  alchemy  is  indigenous  to  china,  and  coeval  with 

THE  DAWN  OF  LETTEKS. 


BOOK  II 
Chinese  Literature 


IV 


rorrs  and  poetry  in  cHnrA 

THAT  the  Cliincsi-  art  eapabU'  of  poetry  may  to 
somo  he  a  rt  vclation.  so  practical  and  prosaic  are 
the  s|Hiiiiu  lis  .,t'  flu-  raif  with  wlmm  thev  have 
come  ill  contact.  \  ct  an  itlmated  L  liincse  is,  of  all  men, 
the  most  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  poetry.  If  he  makes 
a  ri'iiiarkaMr  voyaLji',  lu-  is  sure  {•>  L;ivi'  t!ic  wwrld  his 
impressions  in  viTse.  lie  inscriiies  I'resii  couplets  on  his 
<loor-posts  evcr>'  New  Year's  Day.  Poetical  scrolls,  the 
f^ifts  of  friiiuls,  aiL.rn  tlu'  walls  of  lii  simp  or  stmlv.  lie 
spends  his  leisure  in  tinkerinf;  somut>;  and,  when  he 
escorts  a  guest  as  far  as  some  |)retty  ])avi1ion  on  a  hill- 
side, he  never  fails  to  extract  from  his  hoot-tnp  the  readv 
pencil,  and  to  imlile  in  wrse  an  adieu,  which  passes  for 
imi)romptu — scraw  Hiij;.  at  the  same  time,  on  wall  or  pillar 
a  record  of  the  Oi'casi<vn. 

All  this  is,  no  douht,  somewhat  artifh  ial,  but  it  has  its 
root  in  national  sentiment.  I'or  of  Cliina  it  is  true  to-day, 
as  of  no  other  nation,  that  an  apprenticeship  in  the  art  of 
|)Oetry  forms  a  leading  f<  iture  in  her  educational  svstnn. 
Wales  has  her  Eisteddfod,  or  annual  assemblage  of  bards, 
and  the  great  schools  of  England  have  their  prize  terns ; 
hut  in  China  no  vnutli  who  aspires  to  civil  otTici'  or  bit  r  .1  v 
honors  is  exempted  from  composing  verse  in  his  trial 
examination.  To  be  a  tax-collector,  he  is  tested  not  in 
arithmetic  but  in  pn^sody — a  usa.i,'e  that  has  lieeti  'u  force 
for  nearly  a  thousand  years.  Its  origin,  in  fact,  goes 
back  much  further.   For  did  not  Confucius  make  poetry 

75 


76 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


the  front  foot  of  liis  educational  tripos?  "Let  poetry," 
he  says,  "  be  the  beginning,  manners  the  middle,  and 
music  the  finish." 

The  sage  who  itrcscribcd  this  course  of  study  was  a 
musician ;  but  if  lie  ever  wrote  verse,  not  a  line  of  it  has 
come  down  to  our  day.  He  was,  however,  far  from 
prosaic.  His  sayings  s])arkle  with  gems  of  metaphor ; 
and  that  he  keenly  enjoyed  poetry  and  appreciated  its 
refining  influence  is  evident  from  the  maxim  just  quoted. 

A  stronger  proof  of  bis  taste  for  ])oetry  is  the  fact  that, 
in  one  of  the  Five  Classics,  he  took  pains  to  collect  and 
preserve  the  most  noteworthy  poems  that  had  appeared 
prior  to  his  day.  In  another,  the  Shu,  or  Rook  of  History, 
edited  by  him,  be  has  also  preserved  sundry  fragments 
of  primeval  poetry.  We  have  there  the  spectacle  of 
princes  and  their  ministers  improvising  responsive  verse, 
a  thousand  years  before  the  Trojan  War. 

In  China,  as  in  Greece,  the  birth  of  poetry  preceded 
that  of  philos()])Iiy.  The  Lyric  Muse  heralded  the  dawn 
of  culture ;  and,  by  the  first  light  of  history,  her  rosy 
fingers  are  discerned  busily  engaged  in  weaving  a  robe  of 
many  colors  to  cover  the  nakedness  of  new-bom  hu- 
manity. 

Epic  poetry,  so  conspicuous  in  India,  is  wholly  want- 
ing in  China,  its  place  being  supplied  by  historical  ro- 
mance, which  exhibits  all  the  features  of  poetry  with  the 
exception  of  verse. 

Dramatic  poetry  is  abundant;  but  the  drama,  though 
it  emerged  ten  centuries  ago,  i'-  if  compared  with  our 
modem  stage,  still  in  a  very  primitive  condition.  It  has 
scarcely  got  beyond  the  age  of  Thespis.  An  actor  changes 
his  dress,  as  he  changes  his  role,  in  the  sight  of  the  audi- 
ence, singing  out  as  he  dons  tlie  robes  of  majesty :  "  Now 
I  am  your  humble  servant,  the  Emperor." 


POETS  AND  POETRY  IN  CHINA 


Didactic  poems,  in  which  verse  serves  simply  as  an 
aid  to  the  memory,  are  so  common  that  official  pi  oclama- 
ticns  are  frequently  thrown  into  that  form.  When,  in 
consequence  of  the  triumph  of  British  arms  half  a  cen- 
tury ago,  five  ports  were  opened  to  the  residence  of 
foreigners,  the  Emperor  caused  a  compend  of  the  teach- 
ings of  the  sagL's  to  he  published  in  verse  as  an  antidote 
to  their  doctrines.  Indeed,  so  highly  esteemed  is  verse 
as  a  vehicle  for  instruction  that  a  popular  encyclopaedia, 
in  forty  volumes,  is  composed  entirely  in  verse. 

Passing  over  minor  divisions,  we  shall  devote  special 
attention  to  lyric  poetry,  of  which  the  Chinese  have  pro- 
duced an  enormous  quantity,  and  in  which,  in  the  face 
of  all  competitors,  they  are  able  to  vindicate  a  high  posi- 
tion. 

Their  lyric  poetr}-  falls,  roughly,  into  three  periods — 
ancient,  mediaeval  and  modem.  Their  ancient  lyrics  con- 
sist chiefly  of  a  copious  anthology,  re-edited  by  Confucius, 
but  not  compiled  by  him.  This  anthology  contains  three 
hundred  and  six  pieces — songs,  ballads,  heroic  odes  and 
sacrificial  hymns.  The  songs  and  ballads  are  so  selected 
as  to  reflect  the  manners  oi  the  several  states  into  which 
the  Empire  was  at  tliat  time  divided.  They  exhibit  a  sim- 
plicity in  social  arrangements  which  is  in  strong  con- 
trast with  the  artificial  life  of  the  present  day. 

Besides  epithalamial  verse,  which  is  admitted  to  he 
ethically  correct,  there  are  love  songs  and  love  stories 
which  shocked  the  formal  moralists  of  later  times.  We. 
with  a  less  fettered  judgment,  find  in  them  nothing  to 
object  to,  unless  it  be  the  vapid  inanity  of  most  of  them. 
As  a  whole,  they  stand  in  point  of  morality  far  above  any 
similar  collection  that  has  come  down  to  us  from  pagan 
antiquity.  To  secilre  this  degree  of  purilv,  tliev  luidcr 
went  a  Bowdlerizing  process  at  the  hands  of  Confucius 


78  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


or  his  predecersors.  So  confident  was  Confucius  that  all 
traces  of  evil  had  been  expunged  that  he  declared  that, 

"  of  these  tlircf  liiiiulri'd  odes,  there  is  not  one  that  de- 
parts from  the  purity  of  tiuught." 

We  must  not  think  of  Confucius  as  always  discoursing 
wisdom,  or  as  perpcluall\  lumiiaTed  hy  a  stiff  ceremonial. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  human  of  safjes — a  sort  of 
wiser,  better  Solomon,  who,  thouf;li  he  spoke  more  than 
"  three  thousand  proverbs,"  found  time  to  edit,  if  he  did 
iidt  cortiposo,  a  great  many  charminj^  canticles.  As  a 
musician,  he  must  have  enj<\ved  their  harmonies  of  rhyme 
and  rhythm — attractions  which  those  ancient  poems  have 
entirely  lost,  throuj^li  clianges  which  the  language  has 
undergone  in  the  lapse  of  ages.  Here  is  a  fragment  that 
has  a  history: 

"  A  speck  upon  your  ivory  {an 
You  soon  may  wipe  away ; 
But  stains  upon  the  heart  or  tongue 
Remain,  alas,  for  aye." 

Hearing  a  voung  man  repeat  these  lines  from  time  to 
time,  Coniucius  chose  him  for  his  son-in-law.  He  showed 
enough  affection  for  his  daughter  to  select  an  honest 
man  for  her  husband;  yet  he  admitted  into  his  collection, 
without  note  or  comment,  a  ballad  which  has  done  much 
to  perpetuate  among  his  jieople  a  barbarous  contempt  for 
women: 

"When  a  son  i-  born— in  a  lordly  hcd 
Wrap  him  in  raiment  of  purple  and  red ; 
Jewels  and  gold  for  plaj'things  bring 
For  the  noble  boy  who  shall  serve  the  king. 

"  When  a  girl  is  born — in  coarse  cloth  wound. 
With  a  tile  for  a  toy.  let  her  lie  on  the  ground. 
In  her  bread  and  her  In  er  be  ber  praise  or  her  blame 
And  let  her  not  sully  ber  parents'  good  name." 


POETS  AND  POETRY  IN  CHINA  79 


Had  the  sage  but  bethought  himself  to  attach  to  this 
relic  a  little  note  of  disapproval,  how  much  cruelty  he 
might  have  averted  by  tlic  stroke  of  a  pen! 

The  following  song  for  New  Year's  Eve  is  as  true  vO 
human  sentiment  to-day  as  it  still  is  to  the  aspects  of 
nature.  To  make  it  suit  the  season,  however,  we  must 
remember  that  the  date  of  New  Year's  Eve  was  prob- 
ably a  month  earlier  than  at  present,  and  the  latitude 
about  thirty-five  degrees — that  of  Honan: 

"  The  voice  of  the  cricket  is  heard  in  the  hall, 
The  leaves  of  the  forest  are  withered  and  sere; 
My  sad  spirits  droop  at  those  chirruping  notes, 
So  thoughtlessly  sounding  the  knell  of  the  year. 

"  Yet  why  should  we  sigh  at  the  change  of  a  date. 
When  life's  flowing  on  in  a  full,  steady  tide? 
Come,  let  us  be  merry  with  those  that  we  love ; 
For  pleasure  in  measure  there  is  no  one  to  chide." 

This  is  the  oldest  temperance  ode  in  the  world.  It  was 
designed,  as  the  Chinese  say,  to  curb  the  excesses  incident 
to  the  season,  by  recommending  "  pleasure  in  measure." 
It  probably  antedates  the  founding  of  Rome. 

Before  dismissing  these  ancient  odes,  it  should  be  said 
that  a  characteristic  of  their  structure  is  the  refrain. 
They  generally  start  with  a  poetic  image,  such  as  the 
plaintive  cry  of  a  deer,  or  the  note  of  a  water-fowl ;  which 
is  repeated  at  the  beginning  or  end  of  each  stanza,  albeit 
without  any  very  clear  relation  to  the  theme  of  the  poem. 
Bums's  famous  song,  "  Green  g^ow  the  rashes,  O !  "  is 
in  this  respect  thoroughly  Chinese.  Tennyson's  graver 
melod\ ,  "  Break,  break,  break,  on  thy  cold  gray  stones, 
O  sea !  "  is  equally  in  keeping  with  the  style  of  a  Chinese 
lyric.  The  whole  piece  is  pervaded  by  the  moaning  of 
the  sea,  suggesting  more  than  words: 


So  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


"  And  I  would  that  my  tongue  could  Utter 
The  thoughts  that  arise  in  me." 

There  is  a  book  of  elegies,  of  a  somewhat  later  age, 
which  is  held  in  much  esteem.  It  is  chiefly  the  work  of 
<me  man,  Chu  Yuan,  who  proved  his  genius,  or  at  least 
impressed  it  on  posterity,  by  drowning  himself. 

Passing  over  this,  we  come  to  the  beginning  of  China's 
Middle  Age,  the  dynasty  of  Han,  tinder  which  the  re- 
vival of  letters  quickcncu  every  kind  of  intellectual  ac- 
tivity. The  poetry  of  this  period  shows  a  notab'e  advance 
toward  perfection  of  form ;  though  its  high  qualities  may 
not  be  discoverable  in  tlie  specimens  which  I  have  to  offer. 

The  first  is  by  Chia  I,  a  Minister  of  State  who  was 
ient  into  banishment  about  200  b.  c.  In  spirit  and  inci- 
dent, it  reminds  one  of  Poe's  "  Raven ;  "  but  the  task  of 
finding  out  how  Poe  got  wind  of  his  Chinfse  predecessor 
must  be  left  to  others : 

"  In  dismal,  gloomy,  crumbling  halls, 
Betwixt  moss-covered,  reeking  walls, 

An  exiled  poet  lay — 

"  On  his  bed  of  straw  reclining. 
Half  despairing,  half  repining — 
When,  athwart  the  window  sill, 
In  flew  a  bird  of  omen  ill, 

And  seemed  inclined  to  stay. 

"  To  my  book  of  occult  learning 
Si-ddenly  I  thought  of  turning. 
All  ihe  mystery  to  know 
Of  that  shameless  owl  or  crow. 
That  would  not  go  away. 

"'Wherever  si  ch  n  bird  shall  enter 
'Tis  sure  some  power  above  lias  sent  her,' 
So  said  the  mystic  book,  ' t"  show 
The  human  dweller  forth  must  go;' 
But  where,  it  did  not  say. 


POETS  AND  POETRY  IN  CHINA  8i 


"  'l  licn  anxiously  the  bird  addressing, 
And  my  iKimraiu-i'  cniifi'^sing, 
'  Gentle  bird,  in  mercy  deign 
Tnc  will  of  Fate  to  me  explain. 
Where  is  my  future  way?' 

"  It  raised  its  head  as  if  'twere  seeking 
To  answer  me  by  simply  speaking; 
Then  folded  up  its  sable  wing, 
Nor  did  it  utter  anything; 

But  breathed  a  '  Well-a-da;  ! ' 

"  More  eloquent  than  any  diction, 
That  simple  sigh  produced  conviction; 
Furnishing  to  me  the  key 
Of  the  awful  mystery 

That  on  my  spirit  lay. 

"  '  Fortune's  wheel  is  ever  turning. 
To  human  eye  there's  no  discerning 
Weal  or  woe  in  any  state; 
Wisdom  is  to  bide  your  fate.' 

That  is  what  it  seemed  to  say 

By  that  simple  '  Well-a-day.'" 

A  hundred  years  later,  we  have  a  touching  ode  ad- 
dressed to  his  wife  by  Su  Wu,  when  on  the  eve  of  a 
perilous  embassy  to  the  Grand  Khan  of  Tartary: 

"  Twin  trees  whose  boughs  together  twine, 

Two  birds  that  guard  one  nest, 
We'll  soon  be  far  asunder  torn. 
As  sunrise  from  the  West. 

"  Hearts  knit  in  childhood's  innocence, 

i.mj;  hound  in  Hymen's  ties. 
One  goes  to  distant  battle-fields, 
One  sits  at  home  and  sighs. 


8a  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


"Like  ca:rtiT  dovr.  th<niRh  seas  divide, 
I'll  -ri  k  my  I  uu  ly  mate  ; 
But  if  afnr  !  find  a  grave 
You'll  mourn  my  hapless  fate. 

"To  us  the  fiitiiri'>  .ill  mikiiuwii; 
In  memory  setk  rein  f. 
Come,  touch  the  chords  you  know  so  well, 
And  let  them  soothe  our  grief." 

It  speaks  well  for  the  domestic  affections  of  the  Chinese 
that  the  sentiment  of  this  piece  has  so  penetrated  their 
literature  that  it  has  ha<l  imitators  in  every  ai^i-,  even 
down  to  our  own  Mays.  Tlic  Commissioner  Lin,  whose 
high-handed  proceedings  provoked  the  Opium  War,  on 
going  into  banishment,  addressed  a  similar  adieu  to  his 
wife. 

Passing  over  anotlifr  century,  we  conic  to  Pan  Cliih 
Yu,  the  Sappho  of  China,  a  gifted  lady  cf  the  Court,  b.  c. 
i8.  Tliongli  several  of  her  compositions  arc  extant,  the 
best  known  is  an  ode  inscribed  on  a  fan,  and  presented 
to  the  Emperor: 

"  Of  fresh,  new  silk,  all  snowy  white. 
And  roiiml  as  liarvest  moon; 
A  pledge  of  purity  and  love, 
A  small  but  welcome  boon. 

"  While  Suinmcr  lasts,  borne  in  the  hand, 
Or  folded  on  the  breast, 
'Twill  gently  soothe  thy  burning  brow, 
And  charm  thee  to  ihy  rest. 

"  But.  ah  !  When  Autumn  frosts  descend, 
And  Winter'.s  winds  blow  cold. 
No  longer  sought,  no  longer  loved, 
'Twill  lie  in  dust  and  mold. 


POETS  AND  POETRY  IN  CHINA  83 


"  This  silken  fan,  then,  deign  accept, 
Sad  enihicni  of  my  lot — 
Caressed  and  fondled  for  an  hour. 
Then  speedily  forgot." 

After  an  interval  of  two  centuries,  wc  come  to  the 
period  of  the  "  Three  Kingdoms." 

A  wiak  tyrant,  who  occupied  one  of  the  tlirones,  was 
jealous  of  tlie  talents  of  his  yonnfjer  hrotlier,  who  hail  the 
reputation  of  l)eing  the  first  poet  of  his  day.  Keproach- 
inp  the  i)oct  for  thinking  too  highly  of  himself,  he  threat- 
ct  t  him  with  death,  unless  he  should  on  the  instant  com- 
pose a  quatrain  that  would  be  accepted  as  a  proof  of 
genius.  The  young  man  strode  slowly  across  the  hall,  his 
footsteps  keeping  time  to  the  cadence  of  his  verse,  while 
he  pronounced  these  lines: 

"  Are  there  not  beans  in  yon  boiling  pot, 
And  bean-stalks  are  burning  below? 
Now  why,  when  tliey  spring  froin  one  parent  root, 
Jh<  uld  they  scorch  each  other  so  ?  " 

The  dy  •  T'ang  (6)8-905  a.  d.)  witnessed  the 
rise  of  ti  nd  at  the  same  time  the  culmination 

of  lyric  j, .  ^  u  Fu  and  Li  Po  were  the  Dryden  and 

Pope  of  that  n^e.  The  former,  though  for  ten  centuries 
he  has  enjoyed  an  immense  popularity,  had  for  a  long 
time  to  struggle  with  poverty.  "  For  thirty  years  I  rode 
an  ass,"  is  a  pathetic  confession,  which  I  shall  not  mar 
by  the  additicm  of  another  line  from  his  voluminous 
works. 

His  great  rival  was  more  fortunate.    Welcomed  at 

court  in  his  early  prime,  and  praised  by  posterity  as  the 
brightest  star  that  ever  shone  in  the  poetical  firmament  of 
China,  Li  Po  is  best  known  as  a  sort  of  Oriental  Anac- 


«4 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


reon,  a  prince  uf  bacchanalian  bards.  \Vc  iiavc  not  space 
for  more  than  two  specimens  of  his  verse — an  epistle 
from  a  young  wife  to  her  husband  in  the  army,  cvitiently 
inspired  by  the  farewell  sonnet  of  Su  W'u,  and  an  ode  on 
drinking  alone  by  moonlight.  The  first  is  marked  by  the 
.simplicity  of  Wordsworth;  the  second  by  the  humor  of 
Hood. 

A  SOLDIER'S  WIFE  TO  HER  HUSBAND. 


"  'Twas  many  a  yi:ir  agi) — 
How  I  recall  the  day ! — 
When  you,  my  own  true  love, 
Came  first  with  me  to  pUy. 

"A  little  child  was  I. 

My  head  a  mass  of  curls; 
I  gathered  daisies  sweet, 
Along  with  other  girls. 

"  You  rode  a  bambo"  horse. 

And  dfenu'd  yourself  a  knight—* 
With  paper  helm  and  shield 
And  wooden  sword  bedight. 


"  Thus  we  together  grew, 

And  we  together  played — 
Yourself  a  piildy  lioy. 
And  I  a  thoughtless  maid. 


"  At  fourteen  I  was  wed, 

And  if  one  called  my  name 
As  quick  as  lightning  flash 
The  crimson  blushes  came. 


'  'Twis  not  till  we  had  passed 

A  year  of  married  life. 
My  heart  was  knit  to  yours 
In  joy  to  be  your  wife. 


POETS  AND  POETRY  IN  CHINA 


"Another  year,  alas  I 

And  you  had  joined  your  chiei 
While  I  was  left  at  hoflM 
In  ?>ulitary  grief. 

"  Whi-n  victory  crowns  your  arms. 
And  I  your  triumph  learn, 
What  bliss  for  me  to  fly 
To  wekomc  your  return  I " 


ON  DRINKING  ALONE  BY  MOONUGHT. 

"  Here  are  flowers  and    ere  is  wine  ; 
But  there's  no  friend  with  me  to  join 
Hand  to  hand  and  heart  to  heart. 
In  one  full  bowl  before  we  put. 

"  Rather  then,  than  drink  alone, 
I'll  make  bold  to  ask  the  Moon 
To  condescend  to  lend  her  face, 
The  moment  an;l  the  scene  to  grace. 

"'  Lc !  she  answer;-  and  she  brings 
My  shadow  on  her  silver  wings — 
That  makes  three,  and  we  shall  be, 
I  ween,  a  merry  cmnpany. 

"  The  modest  Moon  declines  the  cup. 
My  shadow  promptly  takes  it  up ; 
And  when  I  dance,  my  shadow  fleet 
KecfM  measure  with  my  twinkling  feet. 

"  Although  the  Moon  declines  to  tipple. 
She  dances  in  yon  shining  ripple; 
And  when  I  sing,  my  festive  song 
The  echoes  of  the  Moon  prolong. 

"Say,  when  shall  we  next  meet  together? 
Surely  not  in  cloudy  weather. 
For  you,  my  boon  comp,-»ninns  dear, 
Come  only  when  the  sky  is  clear." 


16  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


A  text  book  used  in  Cliincsc  schools  is  called  "  Selec- 
tions from  a  Thousand  Bards."  The  authors  are  of  all 
ages,  but  it  would  not  he  difficult  to  make  a  catalogue  oi 
a  thousand  belonging  to  this  dynasty. 

Of  the  present  dynasty.*  the  mosi  disttngfuished  poet, 
if  not  the  most  gifted,  is  the  Finiuror  (  liii  n  I.unfj,  who 
closed  his  reign  of  a  full  cycle  almost  exactly  a  hundred 
yt  ars  ago. 

*  Pao  and  Tung,  Ute  Ministers  of  State,  were  poets  of  no  mean 

order.  Both  presented  me  with  their  works,  as  did  several  bards 

of  less  note.  Not  to  enumerate  other  (fifts  of  the  kind,  of  which 
I  li.T.i-  litcn  the  rocipiint,  twfi  nun  (one  iinit-ty  years  of  a(?e), 
cmiiuiil  .1-  ^cliolars  and  wearing  the  Unttoti^  of  othcial  r.ink, 
called  on  Mil-  lately, as  I  was  passing  ihrouKh  .Shanghai, each  bend- 
ing under  a  load  of  original  poems,  which  he  desired  to  present. 
It  was  a  great  honor,  but  it  was  something  of  a  burden  also,  for 
I  had  to  buy  another  trunk  to  carry  their  books  to  Peking.  Then, 
am  I  not  expected  to  clothe  them  in  English  dress,  and  to  make 
them  known  beyond  the  sou?— •  thing  which  spwx  forbkls,  al 
praent. 


V 


THt  CONFUCIAN  APOCRYFHA 

ASTRONOMERS  tell  us  that,  though  Venus  is 
so  imich  luartr  tlian  Mars,  it  is  impcnsible  to 

o!)tain  a  clear  view  of  her  surface,  on  account 
of  her  dazzling'  l)rif,'htncss.  Do  wc  not  experience  a 
similar  difficulty  in  contemplating  the  great  luminaries 
of  tlie  luiinan  race?  In  their  case,  an  atmosphere  of  myth 
always  gathers  round  the  nucleus  of  I  'story,  concealing 
anil  distorting  their  features. 

This  was  the  case  with  Him  to  whom  the  Western 
world  owes  its  deliverance  from  the  darkness  of  heathen- 
ism. Outside  of  the  authentic  records  left  us  by  the  Four 
Evangelists,  there  was  extant  for  a  innp  time  a  floating 
mass  of  fable  which  it  cost  no  little  labor  to  expose  and 
suppress.  It  was  so  with  the  wisest  of  the  sag^-s  of 
Greece.  TTow  different  the  aspect  which  Socrates  pre- 
sents in  the  simple  narrative  of  Xenophon  from  that  which 
he  is  made  to  assume  in  the  voluminous  Dialogues  of 
Plato!  In  tlie  latter,  we  know  that  we  are  not  reading 
history ;  yet  they  do  contain  historic  elements,-  \  ny  of 
the  doctrines  and  much  of  the  manner  of  propounding 
them  are  derived  from  Socrates,  even  if  the  words  in 
which  they  are  clothed  belong  wholly  to  his  eloquent 
disciple. 

Such,  is  the  case  of  Confucius.    So  great  was  the 

ascendency  to  which  he  attained,  within  the  five  or  six 
centuries  succeeding  his  death,  that  it  became  the  fashion 
to  invoke  his  name  for  any  document  fwr  which  his  fol- 

87 


88  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


lowers  desired  to  conciliate  popular  favor.  Especially 
was  this  the  habit  with  that  larire  class  of  writers,  tli'e 
Po  Tse,  whom  we  may  describe  as  the  Sophists  of  China. 
Take  up  a  volume  of  Leitze  or  Chuangtze,  and  you 
meet  with  anecdotes,  apologues.  ;.'id  discourses,  put  forth 
under  the  name  of  Confucius —all  of  which  are  so  evi- 
dently fictitious  as  to  suggest  a  query  whether  they  were 
ever  intended  to  be  taken  as  historical.  These  writers 
deal  m  a  similar  way,  and  some  of  them  to  a  much  greater 
extent,  with  the  name  of  Huang  Ti,  the  Yellow  Emperor, 
—a  perscmage  who  belongs  altogether  to  the  realm  of 
myth. 

The  pains-taking  and  conscientious  authors  of  the  Lun 
Vii.  the  Confucian  M ciiionihilia,  have  made  the  world 
familiar  with  the  Sage,  who  always  spoke  with  delibera- 
tion, and  acted  with  dignity ;  who  had  such  a  weakness 
for  ginger  that  he  was  "  never  tired  of  eating  it ;  "  and 
who  was  so  scrupulous  as  to  petty  projiricties  tliat  he 
"never  sat  down  if  his  mat  was  awry."  To  these  trifling 
details,  they  add  that,  at  home,  he  wore  a  tunic  with  one 
sleeve  shorter  than  the  other,  and  slept  in  a  nif,dit-gown 
fifty  per  cent  lunger  than  his  body;  that,  on  going  to 
bed.  he  ceased  to  talk ;  and,  not  to  cite  other  traits  of 
aspect  and  carriage,  the  conviction  is  forced  upon  us 
that  we  have  here  glimpses  of  a  real  man. 

But  turn  to  the  outline  of  biography,  familiar  to  every 
Chinese  scIuKil-boy.  Passin-  over  the  supernatural  por- 
tents connected  with  his  birth  and  death,  we  find  the 
statement  that  Confucius  was  prime  minister  of  Lu  for 
three  months;  that,  within  that  time,  he  effected  such 
a  reformation  that  precious  things  might  be  dropped  in 
the  street  without  risk  of  misappropriation  ;  that  shepherds 
refrained  from  watering  tlu  ir  sheep  before  driving  them 
to  market,  lest  they  should  draw  more  than  their  proper 


SHRINE  ASD  TEMPLE  OF  CONKfC  IUS 


THE  CONFUCIAN  APOCRYPHA  89 


weiplit ;  that  prisons  were  empty,  and  tribunals  idle ; 
lliat  men  were  lionest,  and  women  chaste;  and  that  the 
little  state  began  to  acquire  such  a  preponderance  that 
its  neighbors  resorted  to  unworthy  stratagems  to  under- 
mine the  influence  of  the  great  reformer.  These  and 
other  incidents,  either  wholly  fictitious  or  greatly  exag- 
gerated, are  found  in  the  sober  pages  of  Sze  Ma  Ch'ien, 
the  Herodotus  of  China. 

THE  SAGE  TAUGHT  BY  A  CHIU>. 

Many  of  these  incidents  have  been  taken  up  and  further 
expanded  by  later  writers.  For  instance,  the  historian 
records  that  "  Confucius  took  lessons  from  Hsiang  T'o." 
]S'()w,  Ilsianp  T'o  wa-  a  precocious  child  of  seven  years; 
and  the  record  probably  means  nothing  more  than  that 
the  Sage  condescended  to  take  a  hint  from  the  lad,  or 
to  make  use  '  him  as  an  illustration  in  teaching,  as  a 
Greater  Teacher  did,  when,  his  disciples  contending  for 
precedence,  he  set  a  little  child  before  them  as  an  object 
lesson  in  the  graces  of  faith  and  humility. 

Here  is  a  specimen  of  the  stories  that  have  grown  out 
of  this  obscure  incident: — 

Confucius,  it  is  said,  seeing  a  little  boy  playing  with 
tiles  in  the  street,  called  to  him  tu  make  way  for  his 
carriage.  "  Not  so,"  said  the  boy ;  "  1  am  building  a 
city.  A  city  wall  does  not  give  way  for  a  cart,  but  a 
cart  goes  round  the  wall."  "  You  seem  to  be  uncom- 
monly clever  tor  your  years,"  said  Confucius,  surprised 
at  the  self-possession  of  the  lad.  "  How  so?  "  said  the 
lad ;  "  a  hare  at  the  age  of  three  days  can  scamper  over 
the  fields,  and  siiould  I  not  know  a  thing  or  two  at  the 
age  of  seven  years?  If  you  will  tell  me  how  many  stars 
there  are  in  heaven,  !  shall  kndw  more  than  T  do  now." 
"  Why  do  you  inquire  about  things  so  far  away  ?  "  said 


90 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


the  Sage;  "ask  about  somotiiinp  near  at  hand,  and  I 
will  answer  you."  "  l  licn,"  said  tlic  boy,  "  please  tell 
me  how  many  hairs  you  have  in  your  eye-brows."  The 
Sa)j;i'  was  iii)n-])liissfd  ;  and,  giving  the  lad  a  kindly  smile, 
he  drove  silently  away. 

Another  story,  derived  from  the  same  source,  is  found 
in  the  works  of  Lcitze. 

Confucius  met  witli  two  boys,  who  were  discussing 
the  question  whether  the  sun  is  more  distant  in  the 
morninj^  or  at  noon.  "  It  api)cars  larj^cr  in  tlif  iiiorniiii^," 
said  one;  "and  the  nearer  an  object  is,  the  larger  it 
appears."  "  But,"  replied  the  other,  "  is  not  the  sun 
hotter  at  noon  than  in  tiie  morning?  And  does  not  a 
hot  object  give  more  beat  when  near,  than  wlien  far 
away  ?  "  I'nable  to  agree,  they  referred  the  matter  to 
the  Sage ;  and  he.  with  characteristic  caution,  left  the 
question  undecided;  or,  as  one  version  has  it,  be  was 
unable  to  decide,  and  the  boys  formed  a  low  opinion  of 
his  intelligence.* 

In  treatin;:;-  of  the  apocryjihal  literature  relating  to 
Confucius,  it  is  important  to  distinguish  that  which 
originated  before  the  "  burning  of  the  books  "  from  that 
which  btlni  ,  to  a  later  date.  Works  that  preceded  that 
catastrophe  liave,  of  course,  the  better  chance  of  con- 
taining genuine  traditions, — especially  if,  as  in  the  case 

♦  The  German  poet  Claudius  puts  a  similar  dispute  into  the 
mouth  of  two  rustics: — 

Wie  gross  mcinst  du  die  Sonne  sci? 
So  gross  vielleicht  wie  ein  futter  Heu 

etc..  etc. 
How  big,  askid  Hans,  is  tlic  sun,  do  you  say? 
As        ^ai(!  Sep,  as  a  Inail  fif  hay. 
No !  no !  cried  Hans,  not  half  so  big. 
About  the  size  of  an  ostrich  egg. 


THE  CONFUCIAN  APOCRYPHA 


of  Leitze  and  Chuangtzc.  they  bchmg  to  the  Taoist 
school,  w!iich  was  not  proscribed,  and  therefore  escaped 
the  conflagration.  In  the  writers  last  named,  the  reck- 
less use  of  imagination  vitiates  their  autiiority.  In 
Ciiuangtzc,  there  are  more  than  fifty  references  to  Con- 
fucius and  his  disciples,  not  one  of  which  possesses  any 
historical  value. 

In  works  of  the  later  period,  reminiscences  of  the 
Sage  are  far  more  multiplied:  but  their  genuineness  is 
not  merely  questionable  on  account  of  tueir  \  ..loteness 
from  the  times  of  their  subject.  Is  it  not  obvious  that  an 
occurrence  like  the  "fires  of  Ch'in,"  (240  n.  c. )  the 
avowed  aim  of  which  was  to  extirpate  the  teachings  of 
Confucius,  would  open  a  wide  field  for  the  production 
of  suyiposititious  literature?  So  well,  indeed,  did  the 
tyrant  succeed  in  his  purpose  that  only  a  few  manuscripts 
escaped;  and  they,  by  being  hidden  for  generations  in 
the  walls  of  houses. 

A  PREMIUM  ON  FORGERY. 

On  the  accession  of  the  Han  Dynasty,  when  the  first 

attempt  wa.s  made  to  wake  the  lost  books  from  their  ashc^, 
the  same  edict,  which  caused  old  men  to  ransack  their 
brain  for  pages  committed  to  memory  in  boyhood,  en- 
couraged others  to  exercise  their  inventive  faculties  to 
produce  a  plausible  substitute.  The  rewards  offeree'  for 
discoveries  of  hidden  Classics  acted  as  a  premium  on 
forpcry. 

All  the  circumstances  of  the  time  were  adapted  to 
favor  imposture.  Under  a  new  dynasty,  letters  blos- 
somed afresh;  and  the  subject  which  ap])ealed  most 
powerfully  to  the  inventive  faculties  of  the  learned  was 
the  huge  void  left  by  the  missing  books.  Pecuniarv  re- 
wards, imperial  favor,  and  popular  esteem,  all  conspired 


9a 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


to  incite  them  to  effort;  and  liu!  iiiit'itiiwi  aid  faciam  be- 
came a  motto  witli  tliousands  of  zealous  scholars. 

Zeal  for  the  Confucian  school,  which,  for  a  time  over- 
shaduwtd  liy  'I  aoism,  now  Iiefjan  to  recover  its  lost 
ground,  supplied  an  additional  motive;  and  scluJars, 
who  wished  to  give  currency  to  their  own  ide.is.  did  not 
scruple  to  publish  them  uniler  the  names  of  the  apostles 
of  Confucianism,  or  even  under  that  of  the  great  Master 
himself. 

The  Arabs  of  Egypt  are  not  more  expert  in  manu- 
facturing ,-mti(]iie  mummies  than  were  the  students  ul 
Han  in  the  construction  of  ancient  classics.  Not  to  speak 
of  spurious  portions  foisted  into  several  of  the  canonical 
books,  two  at  least  of  the  works  now  reckoned  among  the 
1  Inrtccn  Classics  are  admitted  to  be  of  ajjocryphal  origin. 
These  are  the  Li  Chi.  or  Book  of  Rites,  and  Hsiao  Ching, 
or  Manual  of  Filial  Duty. 

THE  BOOK  OF  SITES. 

This  has  had  the  good  fortune  to  be  included  in  the 
five  Chilli;,  for  what  reason  it  is  difficiih  to  divine,  unless 
because  it  professes  to  record  ritual  observances  which 
were  in  vogue  in  the  period  covered  by  the  other  four. 
It  enjoys,  tlureforc,  a  great  authority  frtmi  the  eminence 
to  w  liich  it  has  been  raised. 

\lore  than  any  other  work,  it  has  shaped  the  external 
form  of  Chinese  civilization,—  preserving  its  essential 
unity  under  all  vicissitudes,  prescribing  alike  official 
forms  and  private  manners. 

The  rn!es  of  the  /./  C/ii  are  not,  indeed,  held  as  obliga- 
tory, any  more  than  are  the  rituals  of  the  Old  'i\sta- 
ment  in  tl]e  practice  of  Christendom ;  but,  never  having 
bicii  f.irmally  abrogated,  a  larger  proportion  of  them  has 
entered  into  the  life  of  the  modern  Chinese. 


THE  CONFUCIAN  APOCRYPHA 


TIic  compilers  of  this  work  no  doul)t  found  much  genu- 
ine material  ilriftinjr  in  a  state  of  ureckajje  down  the 
stream  of  time,  and  tliey  had  no  licsitation  in  supi-lying 
from  their  own  resources  whatever  might  be  required 
for  its  reconstruction.  Xor  did  they,  in  any  case,  take 
nains  to  point  out  tlie  houndary  between  the  old  and  the 
•lew.  W  hat  they  discovered  was  at  best  a  torso,  and  their 
ambition  was  to  present  it  as  a  comiilete  statue. 

On  reading  it  one  is  struck  by  a  great  inequality  of 
style;  parts  are  crabbed  and  obscure,  while  other  parts 
flow  in  a  pellucid  stream,  characteristic  ot  an  advanced 
stage  of  literary  art.  Take,  for  example,  the  chapter  en- 
titled Ju  Hsing.  the  "  Character  of  a  Scholar."  and  you 
have  an  eloquent  exposition  of  tlic  conduct  becoming  a 
man  of  letters.  Again,  in  the  Viich  Clii,  you  have  a  rhap- 
sody on  music,  without  a  single  indication  wliich  might 
enahlc  a  student  to  reproduce  the  music  of  the  an'-ients. 
Both  discourses  are  credited  to  Confucius,  but  the  style 
is  too  modern  by  at  least  four  centuries. 

In  some  parts  of  the  collection,  the  Sage  is  made  to 
appear  as  interlocutor  in  a  dialogue :  and  occasionally  an 
incident  is  related  as  a  basis  for  moral  reflections.  Such 
an  incident  is  that  of  a  family  who  exposed  themselves 
to  be  devoured  by  wild  beasts  rather  than  subtnit  to  the 
exactions  of  mandarins. 

"  Mark  that,  my  children,"  said  Confucius,  turning  to 
his  disciples ;  "  oppressive  officers  are  dreaded  more  than 
tigers." 

The  incident  is  sufficiently  striking,  and  its  moral  is 
worthy  of  a  Sage.  The  story  of  the  serpent-catcher,  by 
Liu  Tsung  Yuan,  is  based  on  it,  an<l  enforces  the  same 
moral  in  the  elegant  diction  of  a  later  age,  exerting  a 
restraining  influence  on  the  rapacity  of  officials,  and  pro- 
moting a  spirit  of  independence  among  the  people. 


94 


THE  LORK  OF  CATHA\ 


In  itself,  tlic  tiger  story  is  not  incredible.  In  OrcRon, 
I  was  told  of  a  woman  who  had  lost  three  husbands  by 
prizzly  biars.  Perhaps  one  attraction  to  the  soil  of  the 
new  territory  was  just  this  facility  :>f  divorce? 

THE  BOOK  OK  ULIAL  DUTY. 

Like  ihv  Li  Chi.  the  Moiutal  of  Filial  Duty  dates  from 
the  first  century  ii.  e. ;  and.  like  that  work,  it  is  reputed 
to  have  been  discovered  in  the  wall  of  a  house  belonginp 
to  a  ilestrinhmt  of  fmifiu-ius.  In  form,  it  consists  of  a 
-  ies  of  discourses,  addressed  by  tlie  Sage  to  his  disciple 
1  sengtze. — wlio  served  him  as  amanuensis,  and  who  now 
wears  the  proud  title  of  Ch'uan  Shcng, — "Transmitter 
'  '  the  Sage." 

In  style,  the  book  bears  the  impress  of  the  age  of  its 

alleged  discovery,  being  more  modtni  by  several  cen- 
turies than  that  of  its  reputed  author.  It  is  remarkable 
for  the  fullness  with  which  it  expounds  the  working  of 
filial  piet_\  as  a  social  regulator  in  all  the  relations  of  life. 
Thougli  the  Christian  finds  in  it  no  sufficient  substitute 
for  the  prompting  and  restrainuig  intUiencc  of  faith  in 
an  omnipresent" God,  he  must  acknowledge  that  in  China 
filial  piety  might  be  made  a  useful  auxiliary  to  the  higher 
sentiment.  The  decay  of  that  higher  sentiment  (if  it 
ever  existed  in  China)  was  no  douut  owing  to  the  rise 
of  polytluism ;  and  i>bilns(ipbers  were  fain  to  seek  in 
filial  |)iety  a  force  which  should  serve  as  the  prop  of 
morality. 

The  state  makes  it  the  basis  of  its  legislation ;  and  this 
book,  whose  canonicity  the  state  has  good  reasons  for 
upholding,  is  therefore  a  comer-stone  in  the  social  fabric. 
The  very  phrase  "  to  rule  the  empire  by  filial  pictv." 
so  often  seen  in  official  documents — is  foimd  in  the 
eighth  Chapter;  and  so  beautifully  is  the  idea  developed 


THE  CONFUCIAN  APOCRYPHA 


in  tfic  proem  that  I  cannot  forbear  citing  a  few 

lines : — 

"  One  day,  when  the  Master  was  at  leisure  and  Tseng- 

t/c  in  attendance,  he  said, — '  'i'lic  ancient  Satjes  possessed 
a  perfect  nietliod  for  governing  the  empire,  by  which 
the  people  were  made  to  live  in  harmony  without  dis- 
cord fietwccn  high  and  low; — do  you  understand  it?' 
Tsengtze  rosr  and  replied:— 'I  am  <hill  of  apprehen- 
sion ;  how  should  T  understand  it  ?  '  '  Sit  down  then,' 
said  the  Master,  '  and  I  will  teach  you.  I'ihal  piety  is  the 
root  of  virtue,  and  tlu-  fountain  of  nKnal  teaching.  It 
begins  with  due  care  for  the  l)ody  because  received  from 
your  parents;  it  culminates  in  conduct  which  will  make 
your  name  immortal,  and  reilect  f,dory  on  your  father  and 
mother.  Its  beginning  is  tiie  service  of  your  parents;  its 
middle,  the  service  of  the  sovereign ;  and  its  end,  the  for- 
mation of  character.'  " 

The  eighteen  siiort  chapters  which  foilov,  do  notliing 
more  than  amplify  this  text.  They  are  so  bnef  and  pithy 
that  school  children  commit  them  to  memory,  and  accept 
them  as  rules  of  conduct  for  their  subsequent  life.  The 
effect  of  the  doctrines,  thus  set  forth,  can  hardly  be  over- 
estimated; and,  in  general,  they  are  consrmant  with  the 
teachings  of  the  Sage  as  given  in  records  of  unquestioned 
authenticity.  The  Hsiao  Chiug,  therefore,  though  apocry- 
phal, does  him  no  injustice,  unless  it  be  in  one  point,  viz., 
— in  making  conformity  to  the  ordinances  and  even  the 
costume  of  the  ancient  Kings  an  obligation  of  filial  piety. 
It  is  known  that  Confucius  was  somewhat  conservative; 
but  it  may  be  affirmetl  that  he  never  enjoined  such  unrea- 
soning submission  to  antiquity.  Does  he  not  teach,  in  the 
first  section  of  the  Ta  Hsiieh,  the  Great  Study,  that  the 
chief  duty  of  a  Prince  is  to  effect  the  renovation  of  his 
people?    How  1  have  longed  to  see  the  rulers  of  China 


96  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


wake  up  tu  tlic  fact  that  their  Great  icaclitr  never  in- 
tended them  to  be  fast  bound  to  the  wheels  of  the  ancient 
kings. 

THE  FAMILY  TRADITIONS. 

The  last  of  ihcsf  apocrv plial  writiiif^s  \vhicli  wo  shall 
notici'  at  present  is  in  some  respects  the  most  important 
of  all.  It  is  tlic  Chia  Vu,  or  Family  Traditions.  It  ap- 
peariii  Intwitii  Iwu  aiii!  three  ciiiltiries  later  than  llie 
Li  Chi  and  llsuio  Clung; — i.  e.,  in  the  period  of  the  I  hree 
Ktnffdoms.  Its  fortune,  though  less  brilliant  than  that  of 
those  two  iiMst  lucky  forgeries,  has  heen  such  as  to  sur- 
pass the  amhition  of  its  so-called  editor.  For  though  not, 
like  them,  set  in  the  constellation  of  sacred  classics,  it  is 
held  to  he  "  deutero-canonical ;  "  .lud.  as  such,  it  stands 
in  the  Imperial  catalogues  at  the  head  of  Jh  Chia,  or  or- 
thotlox  writers  of  the  Confucian  School.  The  editor, 
Wang  Su,  frankly  states  the  ohject  he  has  in  view  in 
piviiiLT  these  I'raditions  to  the  world.  "  I'^rors  are  ram- 
priut."  he  says  in  his  preface,  "and  the  Confucian  high- 
way is  overgrown  with  brambles.  Why  should  not  I 
make  an  efTort  to  clear  it  of  ohstrudinns.  If  no  one, 
then,  chooses  to  follu  •,  it,  it  will  not  be  my  faul*  " 

The  zeal  expressed  in  these  words  is  not  fin  i  to  in- 
spire confiiUnco;  and.  when  he  inforir-  us  that  he  has 
opportunely  ohtained  these  Traditions  in  manuscript  from 
a  descendant  of  the  Sage  in  the  twenty-second  generation, 
are  we  not  di^-jjosed  to  regard  the  discovery  as  rather  too 
opportune?  Why  should  a  nicmber  of  the  family  of 
K'ung,  after  the  lapse  of  seven  centuries,  be  more  likely 
to  possess  genuine  traditions  than  any  other  of  the  "  hun- 
dred names  ? That  the  wnrK  as  a  whole  is  spurious, 
is  admitted  by  native  critics.  I  hat  which  secures  for  it 
unrivalled  popularity  is: — 


THK  CONrUCIAN  AFOcRYi'HA 


97 


1. — lis  woriliy  aim;  j.— Its  pkasiii),'  stylr;  3— Scmc- 
thing  r  c  an  ticnunt  of  real  tradition,  derived  from  vari- 
ous sourci  s;  4  — Adro.i  insertion  and  skilful  amplification 
of  autliciitic  ncdrds. 

Notwitlistaiidiiig  ii.s  inulliiarioiis  contents,  it  is  easy 
to  separate  the  few  grains  of  fjfolden  sand  carried  down 
by  the  stream  of  time  frum  tin-  lirij,dit  elay  in  winch  the 
author  has  wrappeil  them  up,  with  a  view  to  increasing 
their  bulk  and  weight. 

A  STKANdK  MONITOR. 

As  a  good  example  of  his  method,  I  may  mention 
the  manner  in  which  he  deals  with  a  brief  notice  which 

he  finds  in  lisitnt/.e,  who  livtd  three  eeiitiiries  before. 
Lonjucius  had  seen  a  water- vessel,  wiiich,  when  empty, 
hung  obliquely;  when  half-full,  hung  vertically:  but,  on 
being  filled,  tnnud  over  and  spilled  its  contents.  It  was 
said  to  have  been  placed  on  the  ri>,dit  of  tiie  Prince's 
throne  as  a  warning  against  pride,  or  fullness,  which 
"  precedes  a  fall." 

Taking  this  for  a  text,  Wang  .Su  expands  it  into  a 
discourse  of  considerable  length,  a  copy  of  which  1  ob- 
tained in  Japan,  where  it  had  evidently  been  used  as  an 
inscription  in  a  princely  <<r  imperial  palace. 

It  is,  however,  in  paraphrases  on  the  Lun  Vii  that  he 
most  frequently  displays  his  peculiar  skill.  A  few  illustra- 
tions may  not  be  out  of  place. 

THREE  WISHES. 

Borrowing  a  hint  from  a  passage  in  which  Confuciu.? 

calls  on  his  disciples  to  describe  the  employ  which  each 
would  find  to  his  taste,  our  author  shows  us  the  Master 
with  three  of  his  disciples  on  a  hill  top.    Enjoying  the 


98 


THE  LORE  OK  CATHAY 


I  nmulcss  jirtisprct,  he  says  to  flicni :— "  Here  our 
tliouj;lus  fly  unlettered  in  all  directions.  Here  you  may 
give  winR  to  fancy,  and  clothe  your  wildest  dreams  in 

words.  N'ow.  let  tacli  of  yoii  iiatiK'  tlu-  -ituation,  or 
acliievenient.  which  would  most  completely  fill  the  meas- 
ure of  his  amhition." 

Tzc  1, 11  i!.  .  larts  for  fiats  of  prowess,  choosing;  al)Ovc 
all  thinj;s  to  Ir-  aliK-  with  a  .^mall  forri-  to  liiitiil>lc  a 
proud  foe;  and  with  his  f)\vn  hand  to  ca[)ture  the  liaiUr 
of  thi  npp,  .-inR  camp.  I  zi-  Kung,  the  finest  talker  of  the 
School,  Iunt  on  provinj,'  the  tont^iH'  lni^rhtilT  llian  the 
sword,  tnlarj^iii),'  on  iiis  friend's  |)icture  of  opposing 
armies  ready  to  join  in  bloody  conflict,  adds  that  it  would 
he  Iiis  ambition  to  i-ome  Ixtween  the  hostile  eaiiiiis.  to 
disarm  them  both  by  mere  force  of  arj;ument,  showing; 
each  his  true  interest,  and  by  skilful  tliplomacy  to  brinff 
aliout  an  adjiistiiient  of  their  ilifTerences.  "  I  should 
wish,"  he  says.  "  no  higher  glory  than  that  of  such  a 
peaceful  victory." 

Confucius  commends  his  clof|uencc,  and  then  calls  on 
Yen  Hui,  his  favorite  disciple,  the  St.  John  of  his  Sciiool. 
With  unassuming  modesty,  Yen  declines  to  engage  in 
compdition  his  arrojjant  companions;  but,  when 

iirped  by  tbi  er,  he  says:—"  My  desire  would  be  to 

find  a  good  I'm  ,  who  would  accept  me  foi  his  Vizier. 
1  would  teach  his  people  justice,  propriety,  and  benevo- 
lence;  and  lead  them  no  longer  ,'o  build  walls,  or  dig 
moats,  but  to  turn  their  weapons  of  war  into  instruments 
of  husbandry." 

".Admirable,"  exclaimed  Confucius;  "such  is  the 
power  of  virtue." 

In  the  Memorabilia,  or  Lun  Kit,  the  Sage  gives  his 
sii ff ra'^'i'  t"  a  disciple,  who  draws  a  >  lianniii!.;  iiictiire  of 
the  pleasures  of  idleness.   Wang  Su  has  re-cast  the  en- 


THE  CONFUCIAN  APOCRYPHA 


tirr  sirnc.  in  oHcr  to  gtvt  it  a  condutton  more  worthy 
of  tlx  iKiiion's  Ka.licr,  i-rnphastzing  the  sentiment  ex- 

prissfil  I(\  Longfellow: — 

Wrr.'  Iiilf  iIk  f.irx  that  keeps  the  world  in  terror, 
VVi  rr  h.iii  iiic  wraith  that'll  Spent  on  carnpn  and  cowtit 

Givrti  to  riikim  the  human  mind  from  error, 
There  were  no  need  of  arienals  and  fbrtr. 

TO  BE  OK  NOT  TO  BE. 

Thr  famous  sayinp  of  the  pfreat  Apnosttc—"  We  know 

not  life,  Iiow  <;iti  we  know  dcalli'" — supplies  an  equally 
fine  text  ffjr  artful  aniplifieation.  It  is  accordingly  rx- 
panderl  into  the  following  dialogue : — 

•  Do  tl'o  dead  retain  a  conscious  existence?"  inquired 
Tze  Kung. 

"  If,"  replied  Confucius,  "  I  should  say  they  do,  I 
fear  the  pious  and  filial  would  neglect  their  living  parents 
through  devotion  to  the  dead.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  I 
should  say  they  do  not,  I  fear  that  the  unfilial  might 
so  far  ilisrepard  their  duties  to  the  dead  as  to  leave  their 
parents  itnhurieil." 

With  this  ambiguous  answer,  he  closed  his  lips,  and 
left  his  disciples  on  the  horns  of  a  torturing  dilemma. 

THE  LESSON  OF  RUNNING  WATER. 

In  the  Lun  YU,  we  are  told  that  the  Sage,  looking  on 
.  runninp  stream,  exclaimed :—"  Behold  an  emblem  of 
time;  it  ceases  not,  day  or  night." 

In  the  Traditions,  Confucius  was  gazing  intently  on 
tV  eastward  flowinf,'  current  of  the  Yellow  River.  A 
•  liscipK,  inquiring  why  a  superior  man  always  loves  to 
look  on  the  surface  of  a  great  stream,  he  replies :— "  Be- 
cause its  flow  never  ceases ;  it  nourishes  all  living  things, 
and  yet  without  labor.   Its  water  is  like  virtue ;  it  seeks 


lOO 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


a  low  placr ;  yet  cities  and  palaces  follow  its  course.  It 
is  like  goodness,  vast  and  inexhaustible;  it  is  like  truth, 
gtoing  straight  forward  without  fear,  even  though  a 
plunge  of  a  hundred  fathoms  may  ho  before  it.  Tliis 
is  why  the  superior  man  loves  to  look  on  the  face  of  the 
flowing  waters," 

FOOLISH  QUESTIONS  AND  WISE  ANSWERS. 

In  the  Lun  Kii,  Ai  Kung,  Duke  of  Lu,  asks  one  oi  two 

([urstions.  In  the  Traditions,  he  is  made  to  ask  a  score 
or  more.  Here  are  two, — both  frivolous;  but  they  elicit 
wise  answers: — 

"  W  ill  you  tell  me,"  said  the  Duke,  "  what  kind  of 
crown  was  worn  by  the  I'-niperor  Shun?  "  After  a  pro- 
longed silence,  Confucius  replied,  but  not  until  he  was 
urged  to  si)eak : — "  I  was  silent,  because  I  do  not  know 
what  kind  of  ^arments  Shun  wore;  but  I  do  know  the 
principles  on  which  he  ruled  his  people.  Why  should  not 
Your  Highness  inquire  about  them?"  On  another  oc- 
casion, the  Duke  said  to  Confucius: — "  1  have  heard  of  a 
man,  who,  on  removing  to  a  new  house,  forgot  to  take 
his  wife.  Was  there  ever  a  case  of  greater  forgetful- 
ncs  ?"■■  "Yes,"  pliet'  Confucius;  "it  is  that  of  the 
man  who  forgets  himself." 

TWO  VIEW.S  OF  I,n-K. 

A  fine  story,  which  Wang  Su  borrows  from  Leitze, 
is  that  of  an  old  man  of  ninety,  who,  being  asked  why, 
under  the  burdens  of  age,  poverty,  and  toil,  he  was  still 
able  to  .=iTig  so  merrily,  replief! :— "  I  have  many  reasons 
for  feeling  happy,  but  the  priiuii)al  are  these,  viz: — That 
I  have  come  into  life  as  a  man;  that  I  have  reached  a 
good  old  age ;  and  that  I  am  now  socm  to  be  released  by 
the  hand  of  death." 


THE  CONFUCIAN  APOCRYPHA 


lOI 


Afti  r  nlatiiij^  tliis  without  acknowledgment,  our  au- 
thor invents  one  in  a  similar  style : — 

Passing  near  a  river,  Confucius  heard  the  voice  of 
weeping.  Overtaking  ati  old  man,  from  whom  the  voice 
proceeded,  he  inquired  the  cause  of  his  distress. 

"  They  are  three,"  replied  the  man ;  "  1  have  failed 
in  three  things,  which  it  is  now  too  late  to  mend,  and 
nothing  rcin.-iins  hut  unavailing  remorse. 

\\  hen  young,  I  went  wandering  over  the  world  In 
quest  of  knowledge;  and,  when  I  returned  home,  my 
I)arents  were  dead. 

In  mature  years,  J  served  the  Prince  of  Ch'i ;  but  the 
Prince  ruined  himself  hy  ]iride  and  debauchery,  and  I  was 
unable  to  check  his  downward  course. 

In  my  life-time,  I  have  had  many  /riends,  but  I  failed 
to  attach  them  to  me  by  a  sincere  and  lasting  affection ; 
and  now,  in  my  old  age,  they  have  all  forsaken  me.  Of 
these  three  errors,  the  greatest  was  the  neglect  of  my 
parents." 

Yielding  to  a  fresh  transport  of  grief,  the  old  man 

threw  himself  into  the  water  and  perished.  "  Mark 
this,"  said  Confucius,  turning  to  his  disciples;  and  that 
very  day  thirteen  of  them  went  home  to  serve  their 
jiarents. 

In  general,  stories  and  discourses  which  re-appear  in 
the  Traditions,  display  a  marked  improvement  on  their 
originals ;— at  least,  in  literary  finish,  though  in  some 
instances  "  expanded  gold  exchanges  solid  strength  for 
feeble  splendor." 

Thus  far,  we  have  l<x)kcd  on  the  finer  side  of  the 
tapestry.  Let  us  now  turn  to  its  seamy  side,  as  it  is 
necessary  to  do  in  order  to  complete  the  evidence  of 
patch-work. 


loa 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


AN  IHAGINASY  NIAGARA. 

On  the  road  from  Wei  to  Lu,  Confucius  comes  to  a 
cataract,  thirty  fathoms  in  height,  which  crcatis  a  whirl- 
pool ninety  !i  (30  miles)  in  circumference,  and  so  furious 
is  the  current  that  neither  fish  nor  tortoise  can  live  in  it ; 
yet  an  intrepid  swimmer,  more  lucky  than  Captain  Webb 
at  Niagara,  succeeds  in  crossing.  This  passage  ^aggests 
the  wild  fancy  of  Chuangtze;  and,  on  turning  to  the 
older  writer,  we  find  it  there,  but  less  extravaj^ant  in  its 
terms.  Wang  Su  uses  it  to  point  a  vapit.  moral;  but 
he  has  blundered  in  admitting  it  among  authentic  tra- 
ditions. 

WISE  QUESTIONS  AND  FOOLISH  ANSWERS. 

In  the  LiiH  Vii,  it  is  said  tliere  were  four  things  of 
which  Confucius  never  spoke,  viz  : — Fairy  tales,  feats  of 
strength,  outrageous  crimes,  and  the  gods  ( or  the  super- 
natural). A  book  exists,  which  takes  these  for  its  sub- 
ject, and  bears  the  title,  77n)(.t;^  of  which  Confucius  did 
not  Speak.  There  are  nut  a  few  page.^  in  these  alleged 
Traditions  that  mipht  be  grouped  under  such  a  rubric. 

One  of  tin-  Princes  askintj  him  a  que  lion,  Confucius 
launclies  into  a  dissertation  on  gia.its  and  dwarfs,  in 
which  he  says  the  latter  grow  to  three  feet  and  the  former 
to  thirty. 

Prince  Cliao,  of  Ch'u,  in  crossing  a  rive*-,  picks  up 
a  floating  fruit  resembling  a  cocoa-nut,  and  sends  a 
messenger  to  learn  its  nature  from  Confucius.  Without 
the  least  hesitation,  the  omniscient  Sage  gives  the  nane 
of  the  iruit,  and  adds  that  the  Prince  may  eat  it,  as  it 
is  a  fruit  of  gcMxi  omen,  which  only  falls  into  the  hand., 
of  one  destined  to  be  a  leader  of  the  naticns.  W  !i  -n 
a  disciple  asks  him  how  he  happens  to  know  these  facts 


THE  CONFUCIAN  APOCRYPHA 


80  exactly,  l.e  replies  tliat  he  once  heard  a  nursery  rhyme 
to  tliat  tilect:— it  was  prophetic,  and  this  he  knew  to 
be  its  fulfilment. 

In  anotlHT  passage,  he  explains  the  appearance  of  a 
strange  bird  in  the  same  way.  It  was  called  Sliani;  Vang, 
had  only  one  leg,  and,  as  he  learned  from  a  childish 
ditty,  its  arrival  portcndc!  a  delu-c  of  rain. 

These  instances,  with  many  others  of  the  same  kind, 
may  be  taken  as  completing  the  evidence  that  the  so^ 
called  T raditions  are  a  transparent  fiction.  If  I  have 
dwelt  too  long  ,n  this  iJarticular  work,  it  is  on  account 
of  the  influence  it  exerts  in  fixing  the  popular  ideal  of 
the  .^age,  from  the  credit  it  enjoys  of  heading,  as  it  does 
in  official  catalogues,  the  entire  body  of  piiilosophers. 

There  an-  other  works  which  contain  similar  fictions ; 
but  time  fails  to  enumerate,  not  to  say,  examine  them. 

Taken  as  a  whole,  the  volume  of  these  apocryphal 
writings  far  exceeds  that  of  the  authentic  records;  the 
gaseous  envelope  surrounding  the  luminary  is  greater 
than  its  solid  nucleus.  Hut  it  may  be  doubted  whether 
these  fabrications,  however  well  meant,  l.ave  not  de- 
tracted from  the  essential  greatness  of  China's  model 
wise  man. 

CONFUCIUS  NO  MYTH. 

Let  us  conclude  by  briefly  indicating  a  few  points  in 
which  the  apocryphal  Confucius  difTors  from  the  real 
founder  of  Chinese  civilization;  for,  at  this  stage  of  our 
discussion.  I  need  hardly  say  that  Confucius  was  no 
myth.  He  is  so  far  historical  that  he,  and  not  Sze  Ma, 
is  the  Father  of  Chinese  History.  His  words  and  .icts 
were  mimitel\  noted  by  contemporary  pens,  hundreds  of 
his  puj>i!s  oontril.uting  to  transmit  his  tcacliin-s  ;ui(l  per- 
petuate his  memory.   The  attempt  to  make  him  a  mythical 


I04  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


personage,  like  Pan  Ku  or  Nii  Kua.  may  afford  an  agree- 
able exercise  for  tlie  leisure  Imiirs  of  an  in<^enious  stu- 
dent ;  hut  it  c;ui  no  UKjre  unsettle  the  received  convic- 
tion than  Archl)ishop  Whately's  Historic  Doubts  con- 
CCrniiii^  .V(//'('/('i);i  CMtiid  relct;ate  the  I'orsican  ('i)n(iuer()r 
to  the  conipanionshi[)  of  Hercules  and  Llacchus.  But,  in 
the  douhlc  personality  that  goes  under  that  venerated 
name,  it  is  time  to  point  out  the  features  in  which  the 
mythical  Confucius  ditifers  from  the  historical.  I  limit 
myself  to  five: — 

Tin-:  HEAL   AND  TIIK   MVTIIICAL  fOM  I'AKEn. 

1.  — The  real  Sage  was  noted  for  modesty;  the  fictitious 
is  a  prig,  who  assumes  to  know  everything.  The  myth- 
makers,  who  have  attempted  to  dis]ihiy  tlie  universality 
of  his  knowledge,  have  succeeded  in  exposing  their  own 
ignorance. 

2.  — The  real  Confucius  was  a  man  of  few  words  ;  his 
style,  laconic  and  g.'avc.  The  mythical  is  loquacious,  and 
often  occupied  with  trifles. 

3.  — The  real  .Sage  was  reverential  towards  the  Supreme 
Power  of  the  Universe,  but  agnostic  in  spirit  and  prac- 
tice. The  Confucius  of  these  Apocrj-phal  books  is  ex- 
cessively superstitious,  drawing  omens  of  the  future  from 
birds,  beasts,  and  lie  nonsensical  ditties  of  children. 

4.  — The  real  Lage,  when  asked  if  it  is  right  to  repay 
injury  by  injury,  forl)ids  revenge.  The  .*\i)ocryphal  is 
made  to  teach  the  vendetta  in  its  most  truculent  form, 
I)rescribing  its  measure  for  each  degree  of  relationship, — 
the  slayer  of  a  father  to  be  slain  at  sight,  even  in  the 
halls  of  an  imperial  palace. 

5.  — The  real  Sage  was  humane,  making  humanity,  or 
love,  the  first  of  the  cardinal  virtues  in  his  moral  system. 
The  Apocryphal  personage  is  cruel  and  unjust,  putting 


THE  CONFUCIAN  APOCRYPHA  105 


Sliao  CliCnq:  M.ti  lo  deatli  for  five  reasons, — not  one  of 
which  would  justify  anything  more  severe  than  dismissal 
from  office;  and  cutting  off  the  hands  and  feet  of  a 
mountehank,  who  souglit  to  amuse  two  princes  on  the 
occasion  of  a  public  meeting. 

These  Ap(>rryi>Iial  writings  contain,  as  I  have  said, 
umch  that  is  L;(M.(i.  They  must  he  studied  to  get  at  the 
sources  f)f  tlic  Inter  literature.  But  would  it  not  be  a 
worthy  iiiidertaking  for  some  enlightened  sclii^lar,  native 
or  foreign,  to  sift  these  heterogeneous  materials,  and 
clear  the  name  of  the  Hreat  Master  from  all  connection 
with  the  absurd,  vain,  and  wicked  things  with  which  his 
memorj'  has  been  loaded? 


VI 


CONFUCIUS  AND  I'LATO — A  COINCIDENCE 

HE  coincidence  relates  tu  a  moot  point  of  filial 


duty.    In  China,  filial  piety  is  recognized  as 


the  basis  of  social  order.  By  the  orthodox, 
it  is  even  held  to  supply  the  place  of  religion;  so  that 
"  he  wJ"  serves  his  parents  at  home  has  no  need  to  go 
far  away  to  burn  incense  to  the  gods." 

In  the  Hsiao  Cliing,  a  well-known  manual  for  the  in- 
struction of  youth,  it  is  represented  as  affording  an  incen- 
tive tu  the  discharge  of  duty  in  all  situations,  giving  force 
and  vita'ity  to  consciences  ahicii  miglil  otherwise  remain 
dormant.  'I'lius,  a  soldier  who  runs  away  is  uiililial ;  an 
officer  who  is  unfaithful  to  his  prince  is  unfilial ;  and,  in 
general,  any  conduct  that  entails  disgrace  is  im'ilial,  be- 
cause it  must  of  necessity  rellect  discredit  on  the  parents 
of  the  offender.  A  whole  system  of  morals  is  deduced 
from  this  ro<it ;  and  casuistry  finds  scope  in  inventing 
difficult  situations  and  in  reconciling  contlicting  obliga- 
tions. Truth  is  a  virtue  not  much  insisted  on  in  Chinese 
books;  and  its  CMmparative  rarity  l)rings  into  relief  a 
class  of  people  who  vaunt  their  frankness,  and  scorn  to 
palliate  or  extenuate  in  the  interest  of  their  dearest 
friends.    They  are  called  chili  jcn,  "  straigbi  men." 

A  disciple  of  Confucius,  speaking  of  one  of  these,  says 
to  the  Master : — "  In  my  country,  there  was  a  man  re- 
nowned for  truthfulness.  Wlu  ii  his  father  had  stolen  a 
sheep,  he  ./eiit  to  the  magistrate  and  informed  against 
him.    Is  his  conduct  to  be  commended?  " 


io6 


CONFUCIUS  AND  PLATO 


"  In  my  countr)  ,"  tlie  Sage  rei)lics,  "  the  duty  of  truth- 
fulness is  undcrstcxjtl  differently, — A  son  is  rccjuired  in 
all  cases  to  conceal  the  faults  of  his  father,  and  a  father 
to  conceal  those  of  liis  son.  The  obligaticms  of  truth  are 
not  violated  by  this  practice." 

A  hundred  years  later,  the  questioti  was  not  yet  re- 
garded as  settled ;  or,  to  speak  more  properly,  as  with  all 
moral  questions,  the  old  battles  had  to  be  fought  over 
again. 

Mencius  was  the  oracle  of  the  age,  and  one  of  his  dis- 
ciples l)rou,c:ht  up  tile  subject  by  stating  a  hypothetical 
case.  "  Suppose,"  he  said,  "  the  father  of  the  Emperor, 
being  a  private  man,  should  commit  murder.  Is  it  the 
duty  of  the  C'riiiiinal  Juds^e  to  seize  and  condemn  him?" 

"  Without  doubt,"  replied  Mencius. 

"  But  then,  how  could  the  Emperor  endure  to  see  his 
father  treated  in  that  way?  When  the  wise  Shun  was  on 
the  throne,  if  his  villainous  old  father,  Ku  Sou,  had  com- 
mitted murder,  and  was  in  danp^er  of  being  condemned  by 
Kao  Vao,  what  would  Shun  have  dune?" 

"  .Shun,"  replied  the  teacher.  "  would  have  taken  his 
father  on  l  is  back  and  tied  to  tiie  borders  of  the  sea. 
Dwelling  there  in  obscurity,  and  rejoicing  that  he  had 
sa\ed  the  life  of  his  jiarent,  he  would  have  forgotten 
that  he  ever  filled  a  throne." 

Mencius,  who  formulated  the  doctrines  of  his  school, 
in  this  passage  a  step  beyond  the  teachings  of  his 
;er.  The  latter  confined  the  duty  of  a  child  toward 
"ent,  guilty  of  a  crime,  to  the  passive  part  of  con- 
_v.alincnt.  The  foriTier  gives  it  an  active  furiii. — requir- 
ing a  son,  on  behalf  of  a  parent,  to  do  all  in  his  power 
to  defeat  the  ends  of  justice.  But  when,  in  this  dilemma, 
he  sets  himself  in  opposition  to  the  law,  he  is  no  longer 
fit  to  be  a  prince ;  he  should  abdicate  the  throne,  to  win 


io8 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


the  crown  of  filial  piety ;  for,  according  to  Mencius,  filial 
duty  primes  all  others. 

A  case,  analogous  to  the  first  of  these,  forms  the  sub- 
ject of  Eiithyphroit,  one  of  tlie  Dialojjues  of  I'lato.  Soc- 
ratt's,  piiii^  to  tliv  i-ourt  of  KiiiK'*>  IScncli,  meets  Eu- 
tliypliron,  and  kain.>  with  horror  that  he  has  come  for  tlie 
express  puri)ose  of  denouncinfj  his  own  father  as  guilty 
of  a  capital  iTinie. 

A  hired  laborer,  liavinjj;  killed  another  in  a  drunken 
brawl,  the  father  of  the  accuser  had  him  bound  hand- 
and-fi><>t  and  tlirovMi  into  a  jiit,  where  the  next  innrnini; 
he  was  fountl  d.cad.  luUiivpliron  saw  in  tlie  hapless  vic- 
tim, not  a  chattel  or  a  broken  tool,  but  a  fellow-man  un- 
justly slain;  while,  in  tiie  murderer,  he  recognized,  not 
a  parent,  but  a  criminal. 

There  is  something  chivalrous  and  noble  in  his  taking 
up  the  cause  of  hui'ianity,  in  opposition  to  the  narrower 
claims  of  family.  But  it  detracts  from  his  merit  that  he 
is  fully  conscious  of  the  beau  role  which  he  has  assumed. 

.Socrates,  who  as  usual  exjiresses  the  sentiments  of  the 
author,  is  not  dazzled  by  this  splendid  instance  of  jiublic 
virtue  triumphing  over  private  feelinj;.  After  passing  the 
ideas  and  motives  of  the  iiero  through  the  sieve  of  his 
dialectic,  lie  shows  liini  that  those  insliiKls  which  lie 
desjjises  are  the  voice  of  nature;  and  that,  in  spite  of  his 
assumption  of  superior  knowledL^e,  he  neitlicr  knows  what 
he  is  to  believe  concerning  thu  gods,  nor  what  duty  the 
gods  require  of  liini. 

"  The  victim,"  said  Socrates,  "  must  have  been  one  of 
your  near  relativi's;  otherwise,  \<in  wfild  nut  have  been 
able  to  overcome  your  natural  rejuignance  to  ilenouncing 
your  father." 

"Nothing  is  more  ridici]loii<."  I".iitli\ phron  replied, 
"than  to  suppose  that  it  makes  any  ilitTerencc  whether 


CONFUCIUS  AND  PLATO  109 

Mic  is  a  rtlativc  or  a  stranj^or.    TIr'  whole  question 

IS,  wlictlur  tin-  hoinii-ide  was  ju.sliliablf  or  not.  If  it  was 
not,  then  it  wa-*  my  duty  to  denounce  the  |)eri)etrator,  no 
matter  Imw  i  l.j^cly  cutmcctid  with  me;  for  it  would  he 
contaiiiiiiaiiMii  to  associate  with  such  a  person,  instead  of 
clearing'  iny>eir  l>y  dcnotmcinp;  him."  "My  relations," 
he  athls,  "view  this  iinaciilinj,'^  as  impious  am!  unholy; 
not  knowinji  tin-  nature  of  tlie  K"ds,  nor  the  real  distinc- 
tion hetween  tlntii^s  lioly  and  unholy." 

I'.iit."  asked  Socrates,  "are  you  sun  tliat  yoti  iinder- 
staii'l  llie  nature  of  the  .t^nds,  ami  the  (listimtiou  of  holy 
and  unholy?    'i\ll  lui'  what  \(iu  call  lioly  and  unholy." 

"  I,"  replied  Euthypliron,  "  call  that  lioly  which  I  am 
now  (loiiif^: — namely,  the  (Ii-notmeinp  of  a  wroiiij-doer 
who  commits  sacrilege,  murder,  or  other  ^rave  offense, 
— no  matter  whether  the  ofTender  tw  father,  mother,  or 
othi  r  rclat<-  It  would  be  unholy  to  refrain  from  doing 
so." 

In  supf,        '  this  position,  he  appeals  to  the  example 

i>t  ZfUs.  ihe  "  best  and  most  just  of  the  gods,"  who 
chained  and  mutilated  his  father,  as  a  punishment  for 
his  monstrous  cruelties. 

Socrates  re|)caLs  his  (Vinand  for  a  definitinn  ;  and  Eu- 
thypliron answers  that  tiie  holy  is  that  which  pleases  the 
gods,  the  unholy  that  which  displeases  them. 

Soc. — "  r,ut  what  rule  shall  poor  mortals  have  to  po 
by  when  the  pods  are  divided  on  these  questions?" 

Euth. — "  They  are  never  so  much  divided  as  not  tn  be 
unanimous  in  support  of  the  principle  that  he  who  com- 
mits an  unjustifialile  homicide  ou^ht  to  be  pvinishcf!  " 

Soc. — "  I!ut  what  is  to  be  dune  when  they  are  not  agreed 
as  to  the  quality  of  a  crime, — whether  it  was  justifiable 
or  not  ?  " 

As  this  is  a  frequent  occurrence  in  human  tribunals, 


I  lO 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


Mutliyplimii  i>  forced  lu  adiiiil  tlial  it  iiii^lit  alM>  nociir 
in  tlic  cuunciU  uf  tliv  gods ;  and  lie  iiioditks  his  dctiiii- 
tion  by  inserting  the  word  "  all,"  so  as  to  make  an  act 
holy  tir  uiihnly  accoriling  as  it  i^  liivcd  i>r  Iiaicd  In  all 
the  K'"'''  '  '^Tc  Socrates  pushes  him  into  deeper  water 
by  askiiis;  wliethcr  such  act  is  holy  because  it  is  loved  by 
the  K'l'l"'  "'■  l"vid  tn.-:ause  it  is  hol>? 

To  tlii>  I  .utli\ |ilir(in  is  unalilc  to  make  anv  satisfac- 
tory answ  er  ;  and,  alter  a  brief  skirniisli  on  other  points, 
he  drops  the  discussion. 

I'lifi uii,di  all  its  iiiaa's,  Socrates  liad  luirsiied  him  as 
the  l  uries  pursued  ( irestes,  sliou  iiij,'  hiir  that  the  <lic- 
tates  of  nature  are  the  basis  of  our  notions  of  right  and 
wront; :  and  that,  to  outrat^e  our  'oest  instincts  as  lie  is 
doing,  is  to  tight  .tgaiust  the  gods.  Like  the  Chinese 
philosophers,  he  teaches  that  a  son  is  not  at  liberty  to 
assume  the  attitude  of  public  prosecutor  as  against  a 
parent. 

The  prolixity  of  the  Socratic  dialogue,  of  which  I 
have  given  oiiiv  .1  brief  outline,  is  in  Strong  contrast  with 
the  sentcntiousncss  of  the  Confucian  school.  But,  not 
only  is  the  subject  of  discussion  identical ;  the  name  Eu- 
thyphron  "  stiaii;lit  thinker,"  is  singularly  similar  to  the 
chill  jen,  or  "  straight  man,"  of  the  Chinese. 


vn 


CHINESE  PROSE  COMPOSITION 

APROFKSSOR  of  (.  Iiinese  in  America  is  rqwrted 
ti>  liavf  '-ai'l  that  "  in  tlic  (.'liiiu-sf  laiit,Mia.txc  ttitTc 
i;>  lU)  siali  llii!i|Lj  as  a  llorid  style  or  a  beautiful 
stylo.  Style  is  not  taken  into  consitleration.  It  is  in 
writiiis,''  the  latiiji.ai^c  tlia*  skill  is  (lis[)layt''l ;  ami  the 
man  thai  executes  the  characters  with  dexterity  and  in- 
genuity is  tlie  one  that  understands  the  lanfjuape." 

Thoujjh  somewhat  iiiiexi)ected  as  cominj:^  from  the 
chair  of  a  professor,  this  opinion  is  not  novel.  It  ex- 
presses hut  too  truly  the  estimate  in  whi  ;  the  literature 
of  China  has  heen  ^'i  iuT.iUy  Ih  IiI  hy  the  leanu  world. 

The  value  of  Chinese  records  is  fully  conceded.  The 
preat  antiquity  of  the  people ;  their  accurate  system  of 
chronology;  their  habit  of  appealing  to  history  as  a  tri- 
bunal before  which  they  can  arraipn  their  sovereigns; 
and  especially  their  practice  of  noting  as  a  pnxligy  every 
strange  plunomenon  that  occurs  in  any  department  of 
nature— all  conspire  to  render  their  annals  an  inexhausti- 
ble mine  of  curious  and  useful  infomiation. 

It  is  in  these  that  our  savants  may  find,  extending  back 
in  unbroken  series  for  thousands  of  years,  notices  of 
eclipses,  comets,  star-showers,  aerolites,  droughts,  floods, 
earthquakes,  etc.,  as  well  as  a  comparatively  faithful  ac- 
count of  the  rise  an<l  fortunes  of  the  most  numerous 
branch  of  the  human  family. 

But,  while  admitting  that  it  is  worth  while  to  encounter 
all  the  toil  of  a  difficult  language  in  order  to  gain  access 

III 


Ill 


THE  LORE  OF  CA  l  HAY 


ti)  Mi>  !i  .1  i'u  lcl  of  ri  scarch,  who  evor  ilrcaiii!*  tliat  ilio 
Lliiiu'.M  langiiaj^c  contains  anything  else  to  repay  the 
labor  of  ar(|tiisition  ?  Whf)  ever  imagines  that  in  purMiiuK 
his  favuriie  j,''""^'.  in^tia'l  nf  traversing  deserts  and 
jungles.  \w  will  liii'l  iiiin-elf  walkiiiLT  aiiKJfiti;  forests  tilled 
with  till-  M>t)j^s  of  strange  binls  aii'l  pcriunu'l  with  the 
fragraii'  I-  ni  unknown  flowers,  while  rvir  and  anon  he  is 
ravi^lu'l|  liv  tlir  vi''w  of  some  laii'U'.ii  •  of  >urpassiiig 
l)taiit)  ?  As  siHin  would  the  stirlitu  ol  literary  art  expect 
to  find  the  fjraces  of  diction  among  the  hieratic  inscrip- 
tions of  l'.t,'>pt.  or  tlio  aiTOW-lieaikil  nconls  i>t  .\--vria, 
as  to  niiit  tiu  iii  on  pages  that  bristle  with  the  ideogra])hic 
symbols  of  China.  It  is  with  a  view  io  correcting  suclt 
prevalent  iniiiressions  ili.it  this  |>aper  is  written.  In  nt 
tempting  this,  however,  I  ilo  not  propose  a  disquisition  on 
the  vahic  of  Chinese  Hterature  in  general,  nor  commit 
m\.silf  to  the  t;isk  of  ehK'idating  the  priiui])Ks  of  its 
rhetoric  and  grammar;  but  limit  myself  rather  to  the 
single  t  ipic  of  style,  and  more  particularly  the  style  of 
its  prose  composition. 

This  is  a  subject,  which,  I  am  aware,  it  will  not  be 
easy  to  discuss  in  such  a  manner  as  to  render  it  intelligible 
or  iiiKnstiiig  to  those  who  are  unacquainted  with  the 
Chine.se  language.  Style  is  a  volatile  quality,  which 
escapes  in  the  process  of  transfusion ;  and  illustrations  of 
.style.  ImweviT  carefully  rendered,  are  at  best  but  as  dried 
plants  and  stuffed  animals  i  npare<l  with  living  nature. 
Chinese,  iiiorei>\tr.  being  fr  iin  our  idiom  the  most  re- 
mote of  all  languages.  sufTers  most  in  the  process  of  ren- 
drrin'.:.  1  ft'ar.  tluTefore,  that  tie  bc-t  versions  f  may 
be  able  to  offer  will  only  have  the  effect  of  confirming 
the  impressions  which  it  is  my  object  to  combat.  That 
snch  impressions  :.rv  crroncnns  otigbt  to  be  .'tfiparont 
from  the  mere  consideration  of  the  antiquity  and  extent 


CHlNtiiE  PROSE  COMPOSITION  113 


of  ti:i'  I  liimsi-  literature.  I'or,  to  suppose  that  a  great 
peuple  have  liven  engaRed  from  a  time  anteridr  to  tlte 
rise  of  an;;  otlier  living  language  in  Imiltling  up  a  litera- 
ture. I'T.enualied  in  extent,  wliieli  contains  nothing  to 
gru  ity  till-  taste  nr  ficil  tlie  inta^^iiiaiii in,  is  it  imt  i,,  snji- 
pose  its  authors  (kslitute  ol  tiie  altnliutes  of  tuir  common 
liumanity?  Are  we  to  Ijelievc  that  the  \kvs  of  China  are 
so  (iillVriiii  fr.  Ill  tliiise  of  (itlur  ciiuiurio  that  tlicy  con- 
struct their  curious  cells  from  a  mere  love  of  lahor,  with- 
out ever  depositing  there  the  sweets  on  which  they  are 
wont  U)  fetd? 

It  i>  not  always  true  that  external  decoration  implies 
internal  finish  or  furniture:  still,  we  may  assert  that  it 
would  lie  impo-.-itili'  tlial  the  tastv  wliicli  the  Chinese  dis- 
play in  the  emhellishment  of  their  handwriting  and  letter- 
press should  not  find  its  counterpart  in  the  refinements  of 
style. 

They  literally  worship  their  letters.  W  hen  letters  were 
invented,  they  say.  heaven  rejoiced  and  hell  tretnhled. 
\()t  for  any  consideration  will  they  tread  on  z  piece  of 
lettered  paper;  and  to  foster  thi-~  re\>'renct\  luerarv  a>- 
sociations  employ  agents  to  go  ahout  the  streets,  collect 
waste  paper,  and  hum  it  011  a  kind  of  altar  with  the 
solemnity  of  a  sacritice.  They  execute  their  characters 
with  the  painter's  hrush,  and  rank  writing  as  the  very 
highest  of  the  fine  arts.  They  decorate  their  dwellings 
and  t' e  temples  of  their  gods  with  (imamenta!  inscrip- 
tions :  and  exercise  their  ingenuity  in  varying  hoth  chir- 
ography  and  orthography  in  a  hundred  fantastic  ways. 
We  may  well  excuse  them  for  this  almost  idnl.itrous  ad- 
miration lor  the  greatest  gift  of  their  ancestors,  for  there 
is  no  other  language  on  earth  whose  written  characters 
apprnacli  the  Chinese  in  their  adaptation  to  pictorial  effect. 

Yet  all  this  exaggerated  attention  to  the  mechanical  art 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


of  writing  is  but  an  index  of  the  ardor  with  which 
Chinese  scholars  devote  themselves  to  the  graces  of  c<Mn- 

position. 

Their  style  is  as  varied  as  their  chirography,  and  as 
much  more  elaborate  tlian  tliat  of  other  nations.  If  they 
spend  years  in  learning  to  write,  where  others  give  a  few 
weeks  or  months  to  the  acquisition  of  that  accomplish- 
ment, it  is  equally  true  tliat,  while  in  otlier  countries  tlie 
student  acquires  a  style  of  composition  almost  by  acci- 
dent, those  of  China  make  it  the  earnest  study  of  half 
a  lifetime. 

Wliile.  in  the  lower  examinations,  elecrance  of  mecliani- 
cal  execution,  joined  to  a  fair  proporiion  of  other  merits, 
is  sure  to  achieve  success,  in  competition  for  the  higher 
degrees  the  essa\s  are  eopii'd  by  official  clerks  before  they 
meet  the  eye  of  the  examiner;  style  is  everytliing,  and 
handwriting  nothing.  Even  the  matter  of  the  essay  is  of 
little  ennscqiieiu-e  in  coiii])arison  witli  tlu  form  in  wliich 
it  is  presented.  This  is  perceived  and  lamented  by  the 
more  intelligent  among  the  Chinese  themselves.  They 
often  cniurast  the  liollow  glitter  of  the  sty'  ■  of  the  present 
day  with  the  solid  simplicity  of  the  ancients;  and  de- 
nounce the  art  of  protlucing  the  standard  'wen  chang,  or 
polished  essay,  as  no  less  mechanical  than  tliat  of  onia 
mental  penmanship.  The  writer  has  heard  an  eminent 
matidarin  who  himself  wielded  an  elegant  pen.  s[)eak  of 
;lie  stress  which  tlie  literary  tribimals  lay  on  the  super- 
ficial amenities  of  style  as  a  "  clever  contrivance  adopted 
by  a  former  dynasty  to  prevent  the  literati  from  thinking 
too  much."  * 

Still,  however  sensible  to  its  defects,  Chinese  scholars, 
without  exception,  glory  in  the  extent  and  high  refine- 

*  The  use  of  «■(•»  cliann  as  an  official  test  is  ascribed  to  Wang 
An  Shih  of  the  Sung  dynasty,  about  1050. 


CHINESE  PROSE  COMPOSITION  115 

ment  of  their  national  literature  \,Vf  to  you  the 
palm  111'  scinuc."  oni-  of  tliein  n.Ci-  said  to  after  a 
(iisciissioii  on  their  notions  of  r  ttare  and  it;  .'Tces;  but 
he  adflefl.  "  You,  of  course,  will  ii,>'  deTiy  t  :>  u-  the  meed 
of  k'ttiTs." 

Tlic  Chinese  language  is  not  so  ill  adapted  to  purposes 
of  rhetorical  embellishment  as  might  he  inferred  from 
its  primitive  structure.  Totally  destitute  of  intlection— us 
substantives  without  declension,  its  adjectives  without 
comparison,  and  its  verbs  without  conjugation — it  seems 
at  first  view  "  sans  everything  "  that  ought  to  belong  to 
a  cultivated  tongue.  I'.oit!'!.  moreover,  to  a  strict  order 
of  collocation,  which  its  other  deficiencies  make  a  neces- 
sity, it  would  seem  to  be  a  clumsy  instrument  for  thought 
and  expression.  Nor  do  !  deny  that  it  is  so  in  com- 
parison with  the  leading  languages  of  the  West;  hiu  it 
is  a  marvel  how  fine  a  polish  Chinese  scholars  have  made 
it  receive,  and  what  dexterity  they  ac(|uire  in  the  use  of 
it.  It  possesses,  too,  some  compensating  qualities.  Its 
monosyllabic  form  gives  it  the  advantage  of  concentrated 
eiRr.o  ;  and  if  the  value  of  its  words  must  be  fixed  by 
their  position,  like  numerals  in  a  column  of  figures,  or 
mandarins  on  an  occasion  of  state  ceremony,  it  makes 
amends  for  this  inconvenience  by  admitting  each  char- 
acter to  do  duty  in  all  the  principal  parts  of  speech.  In 
English,  we  find  it  to  be  an  element  of  strength  to  be 
able  to  convert  many  of  our  nouns  into  verbs.  In  Chinese, 
the  interchange  is  all  hut  universal.  It  is  easy  to  perceive 
how  much  this  circumstance  must  contribute  to  variety 
and  vigor  of  expression,  as  well  as  to  economy  of  re- 
sources. 

The  truculent  advice  which  Han  Yu  gives  as  to  the 
treatment  of  the  Buddhist  priesthood  is  jen  ch'i  jcn,  lu  ch'i 
chit,  Ituo  ch'i  shu;  literally,  wian  their  men,  house  their 


Il6  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


iciul'lcs.  fire  their  books — an  expression  of  which  all  but 
the  last  clause  is  as  uninlellisihK-  a>  the  oi  iLjina!  C/hinese. 
To  the  Chinese  reader  it  means  "  make  laity  of  their 
priests,  make  (Kvellinp;  houses  of  their  sacred  places,  and 
hum  their  hooks."  In  its  native  form  it  is  as  elegant  as 
it  is  terse  anil  foreible. 

Before  all  thinps,  a  Chinese  loves  conciseness.  This 
taste  he  has  inherited  from  his  forefathers  of  forty  cen- 
turies a^'o.  who,  iiaving  hut  a  scanty  stock  of  rude  em- 
blems, were  compelled  to  practise  economy.  The  com- 
pkxity  of  the  characters  and  the  labor  of  writing  con- 
firmed the  taste ;  so  that  though  the  pressure  of  poverty 
is  now  removed,  the  scholar  of  the  present  day,  in  re- 
gard to  the  expenditure  of  iid<,  continues  to  he  as  parsimo- 
nious as  his  ancestors.  While  we  construct  our  sentences 
so  as  to  guard  against  the  possibility  of  mistake,  he  is 
satisfied  with  giving  the  reader  a  clue  to  his  meaning. 
Our  style  is  a  ferry-t>oat  that  carries  the  reader  over 
without  dancer  or  efTort  on  his  part;  the  Ciunese  is  a 
succession  of  steppin^;-stoncs  which  test  the  agility  of  the 
passenger  in  leaping  from  one  to  another, 

The  Chinese  writer  is  nut  ignorant  of  the  Iloratian 
canon,  that  in  "  striving  after  brevity  he  becomes  ob- 
scure:  "  tint  \\i;h  liim  ohicnrity  is  a  less  fault  than  re- 
dundancy. Accordingly,  in  Chinese,  those  latent  ideas, 
to  which  a  I'  rench  writer  has  lately  drawn  attention,  play 
an  important  part.*   In  return  for  a  few  hints,  the  reader 

*  To  s.iy  ili.it  Iritdil  idi'.is  furin  .Tn  isicntink  often  n  princip.ik 
part  I'f  liimi.ni  -[Kn  li  is  .1-  imuh  .1  par.uln.x,  .atiil  yi't  a";  true,  as  to 
atT'inn  thai  in  nailin^r  wo  (kpind  on  the  alisiiu'c  of  light,  a'ul 
that  thr  printed  k-ttiTs  do  not  iinpre-s  the  cyo.  In  ca-c  of  an  in- 
scription lit  lip  hy  an  tk'ctric  cnrrc  nt,  tlie  nictalhc  k'tti  r";.  tlioiiph 
ni'oos<;iry  to  convey  the  fluid,  remain  invisihle.  and  wo  see  only 
the  illtiniinated  intervals.  The  greater  the  interstices  consistent 
with  the  pa.->sage  uf  i''c  spark,  the  more  brilliant  the  effects. 


CHINESE  PROSE  COMPOSITION  117 


himself  supplies  all  ilic  links  that  are  necessary  for  the 
I'.iiitimiity  (j1  tlu.uj;lil.  This  iu'  ise  brevity  is  better 
adapud  lu  a  language  which  is  aildresscd  to  the  eye  than 
it  would  be  to  one  which  is  expected  to  be  equally  in- 
telligible to  tile  ear.  I-iglit  is  (juicker  than  sound. 
Sci^iuns  irritant  animvs  di  inissa  per  aurcm. 

Next  to  conciseness,  or  perhaps  in  preference  to  it,  the 
Chinese  writer  is  bound  tu  keep  in  view  the  law  of 
symmetry,  lie  loves  a  kind  of  parallelism;  but  it  is  not 
that  of  the  Hebrew  poets,  whose  tautology  he  abhors.  It 
iii.iy  cunsist  of  a  simile;  but  more  fre(juently  it  merely 
amuunls  to  the  expression  of  correlated  ideas  in  nicely 
corresponding  phrases.  Every  sentence  is  balanced  with 
the  utmost  ])recisi(in  ;  every  word  has  its  proper  counter- 
poise, and  the  whole  composition  moves  on  with  the 
measured  tread  of  a  troop  of  soldiers. 

Ur.  Johnson's  famous  parallel  between  i'ope  and  Dry- 
den,  and  the  studied  aniitlieses  of  Lord  Macaulay,  are 
ijuite  in  accordance  w  ith  the  taste  of  the  Chinese.  When 
they  meet  witii  such  a  pa:. .age  in  a  foreign  book,  they 
usually  exclaim.  "  'rhi>  writer  knows  sometiiing  of  the 
art  of  composition."  And  where,  in  addition  to  a  snper- 
lluity  of  words,  they  find,  as  they  often  do,  a  neglect  of 
this  cardinal  principle,  they  do  not  fail  to  express  their 
disgust. 

A  difficulty  in  rendering  the  Christian  Scriptures  is 
that  the  translator  is  not  at  liberty  to  measure  otT  his 
periods  according  to  the  canons  of  l"liinese  taste;  and  he 
not  unfrequently  gives  unnecessary  ofTence  by  retaining 
all  the  circumstances  of  gender,  number,  and  tense  where 
the  sense  does  not  rei|uire  them,  and  where  the  "jgenins 
of  the  Chinese  language  and  the  rules  of  Chinese  rhetoric 
alike  reject  them  In  this  respect,  the  earlier  transla- 
tions were  particularly  faulty.    Of  the  more  recent  vet- 


ii8 


.IE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


si(Mis,  one  at  least  (that  of  the  Delegates)  is  distinguished 
for  classical  taste. 
In  such  a  task,  the  distinction  between  the  Dolmetscher 

and  the  i'cl'-  iSi-tZi-r  wiiich  Schleiermacher  lias  so  clearly 
drawn  should  always  be  kept  in  view.  For,  difficult  as  is 
the  task  of  translating  uut  of  a  foreign  language,  that 
of  translation  into  it  is  still  more  so ;  and  still  more  essen- 
tial i>  it  that  the  translator  he  thoroughly  imbued  with  its 
spirit.  He  must  himself  be  in  a  manner  naturalized,  in 
order  that  his  literary  offspring  may  enjoy  the  privileges 
of  citizenshii). 

The  bane  of  Chinese  style  is  a  servile  imitation  of  an- 
tiquity. This  not  only  confines  the  writer  within  a  nar- 
row circle  of  threadbare  tlmughts ;  it  has  the  effect  of 
disfiguring  modem  literature  by  spurious  ornaments  bor- 
rowed from  the  ancients.  Tlie  authors  of  the  Thirteen 
Cla'-si-s  are  cam 'iii/i d.  Infanible  in  letters  as  in  doctrine, 
every  expression  which  they  have  eniployeil  becomes  a 
model,  or  rather.  I  should  say,  a  portion  of  the  current 
vocabulary.  P.ut,  like  the  waters  of  the  Ching  and  Wei, 
the  diverse  elements  refuse  to  mingle,  giving  to  the  most 
admired  composition  a  hcterugeiienus  aspect  which  mars 
its  beaut  \  in  our  eyes  as  nuich  as  it  enhances  it  in  those 
of  the  C  hine-e.  A  preiuium  is  thus  placed  on  pedantry, 
and  fetters  are  imposed  on  the  feet  of  genius.  The  pecu- 
liar dialect  which  we  soinrtimes  hear  from  the  pulpit, 
made  lip  of  fragments  of  the  sacred  text  skilfully  incor- 
porated with  the  language  of  even  -day  life,  may  serve 
as  an  illustration  of  this  singular  compound. 

In  -^pite  of  this  imitation  of  .antitiuitw  they  arc.  age 
after  age,  insensibly  ilrifting  away  from  their  standard. 
A  law  of  movement  seems  to  be  impressed  on  all  things, 
which  even  the  ('himsc  are  unable  ti>  resist.  By  C(Mi  e- 
quence,  each  century  in  their  long  history,  or,  more 


CHINESE  PROSE  COMPOSITION  119 

properly,  each  dynasty,  has  formed  a  stylo  of  its  own. 
The  authors  of  the  Chou,  Han,  T  ang,  and  Sung  periods 
arc  hroailly  discriminated. 

^  C'liiiia  ahounds  in  literary  adventurers  of  the  stamp  of 
Constuntiiic  Simonides,  and  the  prevalent  anti(iuity-\vor- 
ship  affords  them  encouragement;  but  liai)pily  she  has 
her  critics  too.  as  acute  as  Aristarclius  of  old. 

The  great  schools  of  religious  philosophy  are  also 
strongly  diflferentiated  in  their  style  of  expression.  The 
Confucian,  dealing  with  the  things  of  common  life,  aims 
at  perspicuity.  The  Taoist,  occupied  with  magic  and 
mystery,  veils  his  ih.oiights  in  symbols  and  far-fetched 
iietap!i,.rs.  The  Buddhi.st,  to  the  obscurity  inseparable 
from  the  imported  metaphysics  of  India,  adds  an  opaque 
meduim  by  the  constant  use  of  Sanscrit  phrases  which 
are  ill  understood.  Subdivisions  of  these  great  scIkwIs 
have  hkewise  their  peculiarities  of  style.  Of  these,  how- 
ever, I  shall  not  speak,  but  hasten  to  indicate  certain 
sjiecies  of  composition,  each  of  which  is  characterized  by 
a  style  of  its  own. 

In  no  countrj'  are  private  correspondence,  of^icial  des- 
patches, and  didactic  and  narrative  writings  distinguished 
by  more  marked  peculiarities. 

The  style  of  epistolary  intercourse,  instead  of  approach- 
ing, as  with  us,  to  that  of  familiar  conversation,  is  singu- 
larly stiff  and  affected.  Whatever  the  subject,  it  is 
ushered  in  by  a  formal  parade  of  set  phrases,  and  finislied 
off  by  a  conclusion  equally  stereotyped  and  unmeaning. 
I'orm  dominates  everything  in  China.  It  is  seldom  that 
a  letter  (l.)ws  freely  from  the  heart  and  pen  even  of  an 
able  writer;  and  ns  for  the  less  educated,  though  quite 
capable  of  expressing  their  own  thoughts  in  their  own 
way.  they  never  think  nf  si;ch  a  thing  as  thro\vi!i<r  off 
the  constraint  of  prescribed  forms.   It  is  amusing  to  see 


120 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


liow  cari'iiiUy  <<ur  who  licars  of  the  death  of  a  .dative 
culls  iVoin  a  Uitrr-hiiok  a  ft>rm  exactly  suited  to  the  de- 
{^ree  of  his  alllictiDii.  If  the  C  hinese  wt  'te  love-letters 
(which  they  never  do),  they  would  all  miiili'V  the  same 
lioneved  iihra>es  ;  or.  like  I'al^-talT  in  tin  AKriy  Wives, 
address  the  same  epistle  to  all  the  duiereiil  objects  of 
their  admiration. 

I'.y  way  nf  sample,  here  is  a  "  note  oi  congratiilaiion  on 
the  birth<la\  of  a  friend." 

"  The  Book  of  History  lauds  the  five  kinds  of  happi- 
luss,  anil  the  Wnok  of  (  'dcs  makes  use  uf  tin-  nint  similes, 
liolh  extol  the  lionurs.  of  old  ai;e.  Rejoicing  at  the  anni- 
versary of  your  advent,  I  utter  the  prayer  of  Hua  Feng; 
nnd,  li\  wa\'  of  ri'cordim;  my  tally  in  the  seaside  cot- 
tage, 1  lay  my  tribute  (the  customary  gift)  at  your  feet, 
by  retaining  the  whole  of  which  you  will  shed  lustre  on 
him  who  oilers  it."" 

In  this  short  note  we  have  four  classic  allusions,  two 
cf  which  require  a  word  of  explanation.  The  prayer  of 
Hua  l\'ng  was  for  the  Kmperor  \'ao,  that  he  might  be 
blessed  with  a  hajip;,'  ol<l  a.i;e  and  numerou*  ])osterity. 
The  ■'  tall}  in  the  sea^ide  cottage  "  r<  fers  t()  a  legend  in 
which  one  of  the  immortals  says  that  he  docs  not  reckon 
time  ])v  wars,  biu  whenever  sea  and  land  change  places, 
he  I'eposiis  a  tally.  Those  tallies  now  lill  ten  cham- 
bers 

The  !ei)ly  to  the  foregoing  ran  as  follows: 
■'  My  triHing  life  has  passed  away  in  vanity,  unmarked 
by  a  single  trait  of  excellence.  On  my  birth  lay  especially 
this  fills  me  with  sliamc.  How  dare  T,  the.i,  accept  your 
congratulatory  offerings  ?  I  beg  to  decline  them,  and, 
prostrate,  pray  for  indulgence," 

The  official  correspondence  and  state-papers  of  the 
Chinese  are.  f<jr  the  most  part,  dignified,  clear,  and  free 


CHINESE  PROSE  COMPOSITION  lai 


from  those  pcdanlic  allusions  witli  which  they  love  to 
adorn  tluir  othir  writing;!.  Whucvcr  has  read,  even  in 
the  ionn  ui  a  translation,  the  memorials  on  the  opium 
trade  laid  before  the  Emperc  Tao  Kuang,  or  the  papers 
(if  I 'oinmissiDiier  Lin  on  the  same  siihjeet,  cannot  liave 
failed  to  be  struck  with  their  manifest  ability.  Some  of 
them  are  eloquent  in  style  and  masterly  in  argument. 
Imperi.il  edicts  are  generall)  well  written;  but  timse  of 
the  Emperor  Yung  Ching  are  of  such  conspicuous  merit 
that  they  are  collected  in  a  series  of  volumes  and  studied 
as  niddels  of  composition. 

The  didactic  st\le,  whether  that  of  commentaries  on 
the  classic  texts  or  of  treatises  on  science,  morals,  and 
practical  arts,  is  always  formed  in  accordance  with  the 
maxim  of  Confucius.  Tec  ta  crl:i.  l-!nough,  if  you 
are  clear."  Such  writings  are  as  lucid  as  the  nature  of 
the  subject,  the  genius  of  the  language,  and  the  brain  of 
the  author  w  ill  admit.  The  commentaries  on  the  classics 
are  admirable  specimens  of  textual  exposition. 

The  narrative  style  ranges  from  the  gravity  of  history 
to  the  descriiition  of  sccner;.  md  humorous  anecdote.  Its 
ideal  is  the  combination  of  the  graphic  with  simplicity. 
Of  the  historical  writings  of  the  Chinese,  so  far  as  their 
style  is  Concerned,  nothing  in  're  can  be  said  than  that 
they  are  siinple  and  perspicuous.  Interesting  they  are 
not ;  for  their  bondage  to  the  annal  and  journal  form  has 
prevented  their  giving  us  comprehensive  tableaux:  while 
the  idea  of  a  philosophy  of  history  has  never  dawned  on 
their  minds.  In  descriptions  of  scenery  the  Chinese  excel. 
They  have  an  e\e  for  the  ])icturesque  in  nature;  and 
nature  throws  her  varied  charms  over  the  pages  of  their 
literature  with  a  profusion  unknown  among  the  pagan 
nations  of  the  West.  Chinese  writers  arc  particularly 
fond  of  relating  incidents  that  are  susceptible  of  a  prac- 


122 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


tical  application.  One  siK  ii  is  the  tiger  apologue  ascribed 

to  Loiiliu'iiis  in  the  prcceWinj^  chapter. 

Liu  1  sung  Yuan,  of  the  T  ang  period,  has  a  similar 
narrative  in  which  a  poisonous  reptile  takes  the  place  of 
tl  ti.L'er.  A  poor  iiuin  was  emplivt'il  to  capture  tlie 
sjwtted  snake  fur  medicinal  purp<jses,  ami  had  his  taxes 
remitted  on  condition  of  supiilying  Uie  Imperial  college 
of  pliysiciaiis  w  ith  two  every  year.  I  he  .lutlior  expressing 
his  sympathy  for  his  i)enlous  occupation,  ti:e  man  re- 
plied, " '  My  grandfather  died  in  this  way,  my  father 
also,  and  I,  during  tiie  twelve  years  in  wliicli  I  have  been 
so  engaged,  have  more  than  once  been  near  dyin^r  by  the 
bite  of  serpents.'  As  he  uttered  this  with  a  very  sorrow- 
ful expression  of  countenance,  '  Do  you  wish,'  said  I, 
'  that  I  should  speak  to  the  magistrates  and  have  you 
released  from  this  hard  service?  '  His  look  became  more 
sorrowful,  and.  bursting  into  tears,  he  exclaimed,  '  H  you 
pity  me,  allow  nie,  1  ])ray  you,  to  pursue  my  present 
occupation;  for  lie  assund  that  my  lot,  hard  as  it  is,  is 
by  no  means  so  pitiatile  a-  that  of  those  who  suffer  the 
exactions  of  tax-gatherers.'  " 

1  add  a  specimen,  in  tiie  same  vein,  frcm  Liu  Chi,  a 
writer  of  the  Ming  period,  who  flourished  no  more  than 
five  hundred  years  ago.  "  I  saw,"  he  sa\  s,  "  oranges  ex- 
posed on  a  fruit-stand  in  midsummer,  and  sold  at  a 
fabulous  price.  They  looked  fresh  and  tempting,  and  I 
bought  one.  On  breaking  it  open,  a  puff  of  something 
like  smoke  tilled  my  moutli  and  nose.  Turning  to  the 
seller,  I  demanded,  '  Why  do  you  sell  such  fruit  ?  It  is 
fit  for  nothing  but  to  offer  to  tbc  ^'ods  i>r  to  set  before 
strangers.  What  a  sham!  What  a  disgraceful  cheat!' 
'  Well  were  it."  replied  the  fruit-seller,  '  if  my  oranges 
were  the  nnly  shams. '  And  he  went  on  to  show  how 
we  have  sham  soldiers  in  the  field,  sham  statesmen  in  the 


CHINESE  PROSE  COMPOSITION  laj 


cabinet,  and  slianis  cvt'rywhcro.  I  walked  away  sikntly, 
musing  whetlier  this  fruit-seller  might  not  he.  after  all, 
a  philosopher  who  had  taken  to  selling  rotten  oranges 
in  order  to  have  a  text  from  which  to  preach  on  the 
suhjfct  (if  slums." 

The  last  two  pieces,  though  scjaratcd  from  it  by  a 
space  of  from  twelve  to  sixteen  hundred  years,  are  evi- 
dently modi'llfi!  after  the  first.  1  have  (|U()ted  tliem  to 
show  that  Cliiuese  writers  are  not  alway.s  servile  in  their 
imitation,  or  timid  in  denouncing  the  corruptio  s  of  their 
government. 

Another  kind  of  style  is  that  of  the  zccn  cliaiig,  cr 
polished  essay — a  brief  treatise  on  any  subject,  constructed 
according  to  fixed  rules,  and  limited  to  seven  hundred 
words.  In  our  own  literature  it  answers  to  short  papers 
such  as  those  of  the  Spectator  and  Rambler,  which  were 
so  nuicli  in  vogue  in  the  last  century — invariably  ushered 
in  by  a  classic  motto,  and  expected  to  be  a  model  of  fine 
writing. 

The  production  of  these  is  the  leading  test  of  literary 
ability,  'i  he  scli(K)lhoy  writes  cliaiii;  as  soon  as  he 
is  able  to  construe  the  native  cla.>:sics ;  and  the  gray-haired 
competitor  for  the  doctorate  in  the  examinations  at  the 
caf)ilal  is  still  found  writing  :  cinvii:;.  In  all  the  world 
there  is  no  kind  of  literature  produced  in  equal  quantity 
— excepting,  perhaps,  sermons.  Nor  is  their  prodigious 
quantity  their  duly  point  of  resemblance  to  the  ])roduc- 
tions  of  the  Western  pulpit.  They  always  have  a  text 
from  the  sacred  books,  which  they  analyze  in  a  most 
artificial  manner,  and  uniformly  reduce  to  eight  heads. 
They  aim  at  nothing  beyond  exposition,  on  the  principle 
that  the  modems  can  do  nothing  more  than  unfold  the 
germs  of  ancient  wisdom :  originality  is  renounced,  and, 
as  already  intimated,  their  chief  adornment  consists  in 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


the  artful  inu  r\Ma\ iiij^'  of  sacred  ;iii<l  mndrrii  phrase- 
ology. Like  the  inlaid  wares  of  the  Japanese  or  the 
iiiosaie  iiiotiins  of  the  West,  the  more  numerous  an-l 
minute  their  liorrouetl  ornaments,  the  more  arc  these 
ei  impi  .siiii  Ills  admiri  ii  <  H  ii'>  pr.u  tieal  utility  exerpt  as  a 
UKiilal  yMnua>tii-,  (lie  st_\le  ni  iliese  essays  exerts  an  in- 
fluence ihrouRii  the  whole  range  of  literature.  In<lecd, 
the  (iTin  wliiili  is  CI >i'iini iiily  tin])lii\ed  lueuver  the  whole 
lield  of  I'K-lltwlilH  is  is  no  uiher  than  ui'ii  cluing. 

Here  is  an  ojuning  paragraph  of  an  essay  which  took 
the  fir>t  hi'ib'f  in  a  reiriit  i\aniiii,it  ii  m  fur  llie  ilueturate: 

Suhjecl — ( Kxiil-lailii  and  Diniiily.  "When  we  hegin, 
we  should  look  to  the  end.  (lood-faith  and  dignity  of 
carriage  should  therefore  he  ohjects  of  our  care.  By 
faith  we  mean  that  our  acts  should  respond  to  our  prom- 
ise; hy  dignity,  that  our  hear,  should  be  such  as  to 
repel  any  approach  tnward;.  i-  ent  familiarity.  This 
is  only  attained  hy  cherishing  a  sense  of  right,  cuUivating 
a  regard  for  propriety,  and  at  the  same  time  maintaining 
a  sympathy  for  our  fellnw-men.  In  thi^  l  arilily  pilgrim- 
age, what  we  must  desiri'  is  to  cscai)e  the  blame  of  being 
uiurue.  We  e'lcxjse  our  words  w-  >  care,  for  fear  we 
should  be  untrue  to  our  fellows.  e  choose  our  actions 
with  c.arc  '  ir  fi'ar  we  should  he  untrue  to  ourselves.  W'c 
choose  I'Ui  companions  with  care,  lest  we  should  prove 
unfaithful  to  our  friends  or  they  sh.onld  prove  unfaithful 
ti)  lis.  r>\'  so  (Ii)ing  we  can  fultll  uiir  obligations,  main- 
tain our  dignity  of  character,  and  yet  preserve  inviolate 
our  social  attachments.  Within,  we  shall  have  a  heart 
that  fci'ls  its  self  impnscd  i  iiL;a.i4cinents  as  much  as  if  it 
were  bound  by  the  stipulations  of  a  solemn  covenant; 
while  without  we  shall  wear  an  aspect  that  will  command 
the  n-iHit  .if  those  wlm  af)i)roach  us." 

"  Enough  of  such  platitudes,"  one  will  say,  yet  no  trans- 


CHINESE  PROSE  COMPOSITION  125 


tation  can  i  vcr  do  justice  to  the  subtle  v,  aiities  which 

cniHnl  this  |ii!l'iirma!Kf  tu  he  iTowiu'tl  anuni);  svvcn 
tlioiisiinl  inminiiturs.  Tin.'  cklicalc  Mituris  wlikli  blcml 
its  various  rlitiifnts  into  an  harmonious  whole  must,  of 
'■'■iirsc,  like  i!u-  \\av\  liiio  of  a  Damascus  blade,  disap- 
pear wlivii  ca>t  into  tile  criK'ililc  ut  the  translator. 

From  what  has  ht-cn  said  of  the  style  of  schools,  periods, 
and  (litTmnt  pi^vinri  s  in  ili,  rmi, ire  of  letters,  il  follows 
tliat.  iiot\\ith>taiuling  llieir  prupeiisily  for  iniitaliun, 
Chinese  writers  must  be  as  strongly  individualized  as 
those  of  other  countries.  If  gifted  with  original  genius, 
they  form  a  style  of  their  own:  if  not,  they  ])roduci'  in 
new  and  umlesigncd  conilnnations  the  traits  of  earlier 
authors  by  whom  they  have  been  most  deeply  iinpres-'ed. 

Confucius  pnifessc'l  to  he  an  imitator,  liiit  he  was 
eminenll\  original.  Direct,  practical,  and  conipreiiensive, 
his  thoughts  are  expressed  in  language  at  once  concise 
and  rii\llnnic,il- -  resi-nihling  as  much  as  anything  else 
those  choice  lines  of  Sliakespeare  wiiich  i)y  their  com- 
bined felicity  of  idea  and  expression  have  become  trans- 
formed iiHo  po|)nlar  pr(>verl)s.  Wlietlier.  like  the  Hindoo 
giiiit,  he  threw  them  into  this  form  as  tlie  text  for  his 
daily  discourse,  or  whether  they  were  reduced  hv  his 
disciples,  it  is  not  in  all  r.asvs  easy  to  (ktcrininc.  Hut 
certain  it  i;  that,  stripped  of  tiieir  attractive  dress,  what- 
ever their  intrinsic  merit,  they  never  could  have  attained 
such  nnivrrsal  currency.  The  teachings  of  Confucius 
owe  as  much  to  style  as  those  of  Mahomet.  The  extent 
to  which  style  was  studied  in  his  time  we  may  infer  from 
the  account  he  gives  us  of  the  manner  in  which  the  ele- 
gant .state-papers  of  the  princiitality  of  Cheng  were  prn- 
(hiced.  They  were  the  work  of  four  men  with  long, 
strange  names.  One  "  drew  oiU  .1  rough  draft,"  a  second 
"sifted  the  arguments,"  another  "added  rhetorical  em- 


ia6  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


belli^liiiii'ius. '  and  the  fourth  finished  them  by  "  polishing 

ofT  till'  jurioils." 

Lao  !  >(.•,  u  Miiior  comniiporary  of  Confucius,  left  his 
instructions  to  |K>stcrity  in  "  fiw  thousand  words,"  cast 
ill  a  srnii"|M Hi iial  niuuld.  (  )lKv  utc  aiid  ])ara(lii\iral  liko 
licraclilus  uf  Mpliohus,  suruamcd  llic  Dark  (a  writer  with 
whom  it  would  not  be  difficuh  to  trace  other  points  of 
analdj^y  licsidcs  lluir  icniiini lU  [lartialilv  I'it  titiy;ma), 
his  dark  pages  are  illuiuiiicd  liy  many  a  Hash  oi  far-reach- 
inp  hpht.  Kach  of  these  preat  masters  impressed  his 
slvlo  I'll  llu'  --ilhi"!  wliicli  111-  finnidid. 

Mencius  is  Loiilncius  with  kss  dogmatism  and  more 
vehemence;  while  the  wild  fancy  of  Chuanpt^e  rcpro- 
(hices  the  charaiitrisiics  of  l.a'i  IM'  in  exapperatcd  pro- 
portions. With  botli,  tl)e  current  of  tlicir  diction  flows 
like  a  river,  but  in  each  case  it  wears  the  complexion  of  its 
distant  source. 

.■\s  another  exaniplo  <>f  a  contrast  in  manner,  I  may 
adduce  two  historians  nf  tlio  Cliou  period.  Kung  Yang 
Kan  and  Tso  Cliiu  .\linp  l"'ih  confine  themselves  to  tlie 
riMc  iif  (Apositc irs,  takiuLj  tlic  <  oiifiician  annals  as  their 
text ;  but  the  first  often  coiir.neticcs  witli  a  minute  analysis 
of  the  text,  while  the  other  proceeds  at  once  to  a  narra- 
tive of  facts.  Tlie  former,  for  instance,  thus  expounds 
the  heailing  of  a  chapter: 

Text — "  First  year,  spring,  royal  first  moon."  "  Why 
the  first  year'  IVcaii^e  it  was  the  conimencement  of  a 
new  reign.  Why  does  he  mention  spring?  Because  the 
year  began  at  that  season.  Why,  in  speaking  of  the 
month,  does  he  prefix  the  word  loyal?'  '["o  indicate  that  it 
was  fixed  by  the  Imperial  caleiular.  Why  refer  to  the 
Imperial  calendar?  To  show  that  all  the  states  are 
united  under  one  sovereign,"  etc. 

From  Tso  Chiu  Ming  1  cite  a  passage  which,  whether 


CHlNhSE  PROSt  COMHOSri  lON  127 


it  do  (»r  <lo  not  i  xliihi!  ai'\  utlur  i)i'ciiliarUy,  will  at  least 
•how  the  al'scnct  of  witcrio^Mtmn  marks. 

Text — "  The  Princv  of  ( Vx  i/x  i-nLjiu-rs  Tuan  ol  Ytn." 
Preniisiii},'  that  the  I)elli^t.rtiits  wiri-  hrollicrs ;  that  their 
motlicr  had  alHttcil  tin-  nU-lliun  oi  i'liaii  the  yonnfjer; 
and  tltat  the  I'ritKf,  jiroiii 'Uiu  inj^  against  her  a  sentence 
»)f  hani'-luiieiu.  liad  taken  a  solttun  oaili  never  to  scr  her 
a^^ain  uiMil  thry  shniiM  In.th  lie  niidi ;  ili'^  -oni  le 
liistdnaii  continues,  "  I  lie  I'rinee  >n(ni  i>  i,  'ntei!  his 
hasty  oath.  The  Governor  of  Yin>j  Ku  heard  it,  and  ame 
with  a  present.  Tlie  Trim  e  detained  hv  to  dine.  N  ins;^ 
Ku  put  asiile  a  portion  of  the  ini'uts.  The  I'riiuc  numired 
the  reason.  Sat<l  Ying  Ku.  '  .  y  are  for  my  mother, 
who  has  never  tasted  such  royai  ilaintics.'  "  Yon  iiave  ;. 
mother,  then,"  said  tlie  I'rinee;  '  alas!  I  have  none.'  He 
then  tokl  him  of  his  oath,  at  the  same  time  informing  him 
of  his  repentance. 

" '  Why  need  your  Majesty  he  tn>uhled  on  that  ac- 
cotmt?'  exclaimed  Yin^j  Ku.  '  Ff  you  will  only  make  a 
subterranean  chamber  with  two  doors,  .and  meet  there, 
who  will  say  that  you  have  not  kept  your  oath?  ' 

"  The  Prince  tiKjk  the  counsel,  and.  mectinp  his  mother 
beneath  the  pround,  they  became  mother  and  son  ,1-  be- 
fore. How  perfect  the  piety  of  Ying  Ku,  who  devised 
this  plan !  " 

The  preat  masters  of  style  are  a  thousand  years  later 

than  these  last;  and  then  w\  tr  1  philos' 'pliers.  poefs,  and 
historians  in  such  constellati'  '.s  as  to  ni  ,ke  the  dynasties 
of  T'anp  and  Sungf  a  Golden  .\gt  fot  Chinese  letters. 
Then  flourished  such  writers  as  H.m  surnamed  the 
Prince  of  Literature;  Li  I'ei.  in  whom  the  planet  \'enus 
was  believed  to  be  incarnate;  the  three  S«.  father  and 
sons;  and  a  host  of  others  whose  litjht  has  not  yit  reached 
our  Western  shores,  and  whose  names  it  would  be  tedious 


128  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


to  recount.  Their  names,  musical  enougli  in  the  tones 
of  their  native  land,  arc  harsh  to  Occidental  ears.  What 
a  pity  they  have  not  all  hecn  clothed  in  graceful  Latin, 
like  those  of  Confucius  and  Mencius!  These  sages,  if 
they  owe  to  tlieir  style  in  a  great  degree  their  populirity 
at  home,  arc  almost  equally  indebted  for  their  fame 
abroad  to  the  classical  terminations  of  their  names. 
Name  is  fame  in  more  llian  one  sense,  and  more  than  uiie 
language- -in  Chinese  as  in  Hebrew ;  and  it  is  obvious 
that  in  the  Western  world  no  amount  of  merit  would  be 
sufficient  to  et)iifer  celebrity  on  a  man  bearing  the  name 
of  K'ooiig  footzc! 

1  refrain  from  further  extracts.  For  reasons  already 
given,  no  translation  can  do  justice  to  tlie  style  of  a 
Chinese  writer  :  and  ;i  volume,  instead  of  a  brief  essay, 
would  be  recpiired  lu  give  an  approximate  idea  of  the 
Other  qualities  of  what  the  Chinese  describe  as  their 
elegant  literature. 

It  is  on  their  poetry  that  they  especially  pique  them- 
selves; but,  as  1  think,  with  mistaken  judgment.  For 
while  their  prose  writers,  like  those  of  France,  arc  un- 
surpassed in  felicity  of  style,  their  poetry,  like  that  of 
France,  is  stiff  and  constrained.  Like  their  own  women, 
their  poetical  muses  have  cramped  feet  and  no  wings. 

For  variety  in  prose  composition,  the  nature  of  the  lan- 
guage affords  a  boundless  scope.  For,  not  to  speak  of 
local  dialects,  the  langxiage  of  scholars,  or  the  written 
language,  ranges  in  its  choice  of  expressions  from  the 
familiar  patois  up  to  the  most  archaic  forms.  In  China 
nothing  becomes  olisnlete;  and  a  writer  is  thus  enabled 
to  pitch  his  composition,  at  option,  on  a  '  igh  or  low  key, 
and  to  carry  it  through  consistently.  There  are,  for  ex- 
ample, three  sets  of  personal  pronouns  that  correspond 
to  as  many  grades  of  style;  while  there  are  other  styles 


CHINESE  PROSE  COMPOSITION  129 


in  wliicli  tlic  i)crs()iial  pronoun  is  dispensed  with,  and 
substantives  cinployid  instead. 

Founded  on  pictorial  representation,  t'ne  language  is,  in 
many  of  its  features,  highly  poetical,  the  strange  beauties 
with  whieh  it  cliarins  the  fancy  at  every  step,  suggesting 
a  ramble  among  the  gardens  of  the  sea-nymphs.  Xor  is 
it  a  dead  language,  though  in  its  written  form  no  longer 
generally  spuken.  It  contains  "thoughts  tliat  breathe, 
and  words  that  bum," — writers  whom  the  student  will 
gladly  acknowledge  as  worthy  compeers  of  the  most  ad- 
mired autliors  of  the  ancient  West.  I  say  "  ancient,"  for 
China  is  essentially  ancient.  She  is  not  yet  modernized, 
and  finds  fitter  parallels  in  i)agan  antiquity  than  in  modem 
Christendom. 

The  time,  i  trust,  is  mt  far  distant  when  her  languape 
will  find  a  place  in  all  our  princijial  seats  of  learning,  and 
when  her  classic  w^riters  will  be  known  and  appreciated. 


VIII 


CHINESE  LETTER  WRITING 

IN  no  otlicr  lanpiiajjc  is  the  style  of  private  corre- 
spondence so  widely  separated  from  tliat  of  c^cial 
or  public  documents  as  in  the  Chinese.  The  latter, 
simple  and  direct  in  expression,  eschews  omaiiient.  and 
aims  chiefly  at  clearness  and  force :  the  former,  artiticial 
to  the  last  degree,  teems  with  trite  allusions  which  are 
rather  i)e(lantic  than  elegant. 

With  us,  in  this  as  in  so  many  other  things,  tiie  reverse 
is  not  far  from  the  truth.  It  is  the  official  despatch  that 
is  cast  in  iron  moulds;  and  the  famili:  r  Utter  i>  left  free 
to  take  any  shape  the  easy  play  of  thought  md  feelinij 
may  impress  upon  it.  Western  authors  accordingly 
sometimes  choose  to  throw  their  compositions  into  the 
coiiviiiient  form  of  epistles  when  they  wish  to  invest 
them  with  the  douhle  charm  of  clearness  and  vivacity. 
By  employmg  the  form  of  letters,  Pascal  inii)arted  to 
polemic  discussion  tlie  grace  and  humor  of  the  comic 
drama;  while  .'^wift  and  Junius  availed  themselves  <<(  the 
same  weapon  in  their  terrible  attacks  on  the  government. 

Not  s(i  the  Chinese:  though  necessity  leads  tci  llie  dis- 
cussion of  grave  tojiics  in  the  form  of  letters,  and  tiiough 
the  teachings  of  some  of  their  ancient  philosophers  were 
communicated  in  the  way  of  correspondence,  tio  modern 
Chinese  ever  thinks  of  throwing  his  ideas  into  such  a 
shajH  ,  any  more  than  he  would  treat  a  grave  subject  under 
the  form  of  the  modem  prize  essay.  Thoughtful  men 
denounce  the  regulation  essay  as  utterly  useless ;  but  they 

130 


CHINESE  LETTER  WRITING  131 


never  denounce  the  conventional  style  of  letter-writing, 
though  hoth  iiave  a  family  likeness.  The  reason  is  that 
the  letter  of  friendship  or  business  is  a  social  necessity, 
and  the  literary  ornament  with  which  it  is  tricked  out  is 
deemed  essential  to  save  it  from  vulgarity. 

In  friendly  correspondence  the  opening  paragraphs  are 
always  consecrated  to  the  expression  of  high-flown  senti- 
ments, real  or  assumed,  and  not  iinfreiiuently  the  falsetto 
pitch  of  the  exordium  is  painfully  sustained  to  the  very 
close.  Nothing  is  more  offensive  to  our  taste,  or  less  cal- 
culated to  encourage  the  laI)or  of  acquisition.  If  a  letter 
contains  any  serious  business,  the  foreign  reader,  if  he 
docs  not,  as  in  most  cases,  rely  on  a  native  teacher  for 
explanation,  finds  tliat  he  can  arrive  at  it  by  a  process  of 
elimination,  i.  e.  by  leaving  out  of  account  all  the  unin- 
telligible rhetoric.  But  this  is  not  merely  unscholarly ;  it 
limits  tlif  use  of  correspondence,  and  shuts  out  the  stu- 
dent (be  does  not  deserve  tlie  name  of  student  if  willing 
to  be  shut  out)  from  a  department  of  literature  which 
more  than  any  other  presents  us  with  pictures  of  indi- 
vidual character  and  social  life. 

The  student  wiio  desires  to  enter  this  field  will  find 
numerous  private  collections  of  more  or  less  celebrity 
soliciting  his  atteiuinn.  If  ;niy  of  tbetn  were  from  the 
pens  of  gifted  women;  and  if  the  canons  of  Chinese  taste 
(for  the  fault  is  not  in  the  language)  permitted  them, 
like  their  sisters  of  the  \\'est,  to  write  as  they  talk,  he 
might,  even  in  this  department,  verify  the  quaint  old 
maxim,  "  The  sweetness  of  the  lips  incrcaseth  knowl- 
edge." But,  alas!  there  is  no  Sevigne,  who,  by  her  bril- 
liant gossip,  can  shed  the  dews  of  immortality,  over  the 
ephemeral  intrigues  of  a  court,  and  by  her  wit  give  a 
value  to  things  that  are  worthless,  as  amber  does  to  the 
insects  which  it  embalms ;  there  is  no  Wortley,  who  chats 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


with  equal  charm  of  literature  and  love;  no  Lady  Duff 

Gordon,  wlin,  liy  lier  genius  and  enterprise,  puts  us  in 
love  witli  l)uat  life  and  Bedouins. 

The  paths  of  epistolary  literature,  where  the  choicest 
nowcr>  arc  dn  ■ppi. il  from  female  hantls.  are  in  China 
almost  untrodden  l)y  female  feet;  and  a  reason  gravely 
given  for  withholding  from  women  the  key  of  knowledge 
is  that  niiii  are  nfraul  they  zcill  learn  /<>  zerilc  letters.  It 
is  not  nature,  but  man,  that  is  ungenerous  to  the  daughters 
of  the  East. 

"  Kiio\v]edjje  tn  tlicir  eyes  her  .Tinplo  page, 
Kh-Ii  uith  the  nf  inin-.  dul  iio'cr  unroll; 

Chill  jralousy  repressed  their  iidblc  rage, 
And  froze  the  genial  current  of  the  soul." 

Nor,  it  must  he  confessed,  is  there  any  such  indemnity  in 
store  for  our  student  as  the  epistles  of  a  moralizing 
Scncc.i :  or  the  correspondence  of  a  nialis^nant  and  intrigu- 
ing \\  alpolc,  which  lifts  the  veil  from  the  mysteries 
of  contemporary  politics,  and  from  the  writer's  own 
hosoii:.  -II  that  Macaulay  in^eniutisly  compares  tlie  flavor 
of  the  letters  of  the  great  mniister  to  that  of  pates  dc  foie 
gras,  because  derived  from  a  disease  of  the  liver  in  the 
animal  that  produced  them.  Wut  as  some  of  our  most 
eminent  poets,  such  as  Dryden,  (jray,  and  Cowper,  have 
left  hchind  them  letters  that  arc  f)rescrved  as  models  of 
clef^aiiie,  in  which  fancy  and  feelini^  are  n^  less  happily 
hlendrd  ilian  in  their  poetical  works,  so  we  find  thai  in 
China  the  list  of  distinguished  letter  writers  is  headed  by 
the  names  of  poets,  showing  that  they  enjii\ed  the  favor 
of  the  iiiiisa  pedeslris  as  well  as  of  her  wiutrt-d  sisters. 

The  earliest  collection  of  letter-,  or  at  le.isi  the  most 
famous  of  those  that  are  accepted  as  models  of  epistolary 
style,  came  from  the  pens  of  two  celebrated  poets  of  the 


CHINESE  LETTER  WRITING  ijj 


Sunp;  dynasty,  Su  Tung  P'o,  ami  Iluans  T'ing  Chien. 
I'ndcr  tlu'  juiin  name  of  Su  lluany;  L  l)"ih  Tu.  tliough  not 
proixjriy  a  Bncfwixhscl,  or  correspondence  between  the 
two  authors,  it  has  ever  since  the  battle  of  Hastings 
given  law  Id  this  s])ecies  of  coni])osition. 

The  stream  of  time,  like  that  which  lloated  the  bor- 
rowed axe  of  the  prophet,  usually  carries  down  the 
weightier  matters,  and  deposits  tlie  less  important  as  sedi- 
ment; yet  in  this  instance  we  have  reason  to  regret  that, 
like  natural  rivers,  it  has  only  brought  down  to  us  the 
lighter  material  c"  its  surface.  Both  writers  held  high 
offices,  and  one  ot  them  was  especially  honored  at  the 
Imperial  Court;  but  their  letters  have  little  to  do  with 
State  policy;  and  the  selection  has  obviously  been  made 
on  the  principle  that  if  one  of  their  merits  is  in  the  ele- 
gance of  their  form,  another  ought  to  be  in  the  absence  of 
facts.  Still,  even  tluse  .shining  husks,  if  carefully  sifted, 
w"ll  l)e  found  to  yield  some  grains  of  valuable  informa- 
tion. 

A  book  of  letters  of  more  modem  date,  and  scarcely 
inferior  in  reputation,  is  the  CIt'ilt  Tu  of  Hsiao  Ts'ang,  or 
Sui  i'tiaii.  as  it  is  variously  styled.  Tlie  author,  Yuan 
Mei,  a  native  of  Che  kiang.  won  a  seat  in  the  Imperial 
Aca(  my  in  the  \x'\iiu  ot  Ch'ien  Lung:  and  declining 
office,  passed  his  life  at  Nanking,  chielly  engaged  in 
scholastic  pursuits,  boasting  that  for  thirty  years  he  never 
ap])eared  at  court. 

Known  mainly  as  a  professor  of  belles-lettres,  with 
pupils  dispersed  over  several  provinces,  instead  of  col- 
lected into  one  lecture  room,  and  commu.iicating  by  post 
instead  of  viva  z'oce.  this  worthy  man  has  not  merely  left 
models  of  comjiosition.  but  set  an  example,  both  as  scholar 
an<l  instructor,  which  is  much  admired  though  little  fol- 
lowed. 


134  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


A  poet  of  refined  taste,  and  not  without  talent,  it  is 

interesting  to  kni)\v  that  he  gave  instruction  in  the  art  of 
poetry  to  numerous  ladies  of  high  family  and  culture, 
making,  from  time  to  time,  the  circuit  of  the  cities  where 
tin  y  residi'd — a  fart  the  rarity  of  which  rather  sujiports 
than  invalidates  the  view  above  given  of  the  deficiencies 
of  femi^Ie  education. 

There  are  numerous  works  passing  under  the  general 
name  of  Ch'ih  Tu,  which  were  prepared  expressly  for 
form-books,  and  will  repay  perusal  for  that  purpose.  Of 
these  I  may  mention  the  )'c)i  ch:  nut  tan.  Hat  shau^  hung 
111.  and  Liu  ch'iit;^  chi;  hut  they  have  not  the  additional 
recuniinendation  of  a  history. 

It  is,  however,  with  a  view  to  drawing  attention  to  a 
more  recent  collection  that  this  article  is  written. 

The  T::c  Yuan  Ch'ih  Tu,  published  at  Peking  a  few 
years  ago  in  four  thin  volumes,  consists  of  a  selection 
from  the  letters  of  I.iu  I  'hia  Chu. 

This  is  a  name  whicii,  being  unknown,  carries  no 
weight;  and  our  author,  like  Hawthorne  in. one  of  his 
earlier  works,  miglit  speak  of  himself  as  enjoying  the 
distinction  of  being  one  of  the  obscurest  men  of  letters 
in  all  China.  A  native  of  Hunan,  he  passed  many  years 
in  the  office  of  the  Govc  rnnr  of  Canton ;  a  representative 
of  that  nameless  but  influential  class  who  transact  the 
business  while  their  superiors  enjoy  the  honors  of  official 
station. 

During  tliis  period  he  wrote,  lie  tells  us.  heaps  of  papers 
higher  than  his  head,  among  which  one  might  play  hide- 
and-seek  in  more  senses  than  one.  Most  of  them  were, 
of  course,  sent  fortli  in  the  name  of  others,  and  the  writer 
facetiously  compares  himself  with  a  milliner  who  prepares 
the  clothing  for  a  bride,  or  a  go-between  who  arranges 
for  her  nuptials.  Of  these  he  gives  us  none,  unless,  in- 


CHINESE  LETTER  WRITING  135 


deed,  by  surreptitiously  changing  their  address  and  adapt- 
ing them  to  Ills  own  use. 

The  most  of  his  papers  bear  unmistakable  marks  of 
having  been  culled  from  hi.,  private  portfolio;  affording 
such  iiiciileiital  glimp.ses  of  life  ami  manners  that  one  is 
compelled  to  accept  them  as  a  genuine  record — a  portion 
of  the  writer's  autobiography.  This  gives  the  work  an 
elcineiU  nf  interest  of  no  mean  order,  and  a  value  uf  its 
own,  as  a  mirnjr  held  up  to  the  face  of  Cliinese  life  by 
the  hand  of  a  native.  So  frank,  indeed,  are  its  disclosures, 
so  little  care  is  taken  tu  draw  a  veil  over  things  that  are 
deemed  discreditable,  that  one  might  almost  regard  the 
work  as  belonging  to  the  category  of  "  confessions  " — 
originated  by  St.  Augustine,  and  rendered  pc^ular  by 
Rousseau. 

As  to  the  literary  merits  of  the  performance,  it  is  suf- 
ficient to  cite  the  names  of  the  two  sponsors  under  whose 
patronage  the  author  comes  before  the  public — Kuo 
Sung  Tao,  Minister  to  Englantl,  and  Wang  K'ai  Tai,  the 
late  enlightened  governor  of  the  Province  of  Fukien — 
eacli  of  tlietn  havinj^  filled  the  post  of  Governor  of  Can- 
ton, and  employed  Liu  Chia  Chu  as  a  confidential  secre- 
tary. 

( )llier  great  names  are  invoked  in  a  long  list  of  lauda- 
tory notices ;  and  some  that  we  meet  w'.i  \  incidentally  in 
the  course  of  the  correspondence,  such  as  Tseng  Kuo 
P"an.  Chiang  I  T.i,  1  ,i  Tlung  Chang,  and  Liu  Ch'ang  Yu, 
(viceroy  of  Yiinnan  and  Kweichou),  impart  to  it  an  air 
of  historical  truth  that  is  much  in  its  favor. 

Without  pausing  longer  to  discourse  about  the  book, 
let  us  open  its  pages  and  see  what  we  shall  find  there. 

To  begin,  we  shall  find  a  meteoric  shower  of  allusions. 
ThiN  is  the  most  prominent  characteristic  of  this  species 
of  writing ;  and  tiie  primary  object  of  the  artifice  is  to 


136 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


hide  the  nakedness  of  commonplace.  Employed  in  excess 
or  handled  clumsily,  it  aggravates  the  evil  by  exposing  the 
poverty  of  the  writer,  or  substitutes  the  graver  faults  of 
pedantry  and  cant;  used  -.villi  skill  and  taste,  it  throws 
over  llie  ]>a^e  a  glitter  of  iriile>eein  lines,  or,  it  may  be, 
contributes  largely  to  the  significance  ami  force  of  lan- 
guage. 

Tliese  alhisions  are  df  varidU-  kinils.  ."^unie  su;4j;est 
whole  chapters  of  history  ;  others  bring  up  the  words  or 
actions  of  real  or  mythical  personages ;  while  others  still, 
by  a  single  word  or  phrase,  eiist  a  beam  df  light  on  some 
poetical  tableau,  which  brings  its  entire  elfecl  to  bear  on 
the  subject  in  hand.  For  instance,  when  Dryden  says  of 
Thais  that, 

"  Like  another  Helen,  she  fired  another  Troy," 

what  a  crowd  of  teeming  associations  he  condenses  into 
the  space  of  a  siii^de  line!  llow  nuich  is  ex])ressed  by 
such  brief  phrases  as  "  a  Uannecide  feast,"  "  a  BcUerophon 
letter,"  "  a  Judas  kiss !  " 

The  Chinese  language  alxninds  in  such ;  and  no  one 
can  be  said  to  understand  the  language  who  is  not  in  some 
degree  familiar  with  them.  Then  there  are  curt  allusions 
(jf  a  purely  literary  kind — catch  wtirds  which  suggest  ;iny 
one  of  the  tliree  hundred  classic  odes,  or  refer  to  thou- 
sands of  well-known  passages  in  later  literature.  To  these 
we  may  add  a  vocabulary  ni  luciaphi jrical  words  and 
phrases,  the  use  of  which  is  Jc  ri^cur  in  a  certain  style 
which  makes  it  a  ijoint  of  taste  not  to  call  things  by  their 
right  names.  Thus  the  poet  or  the  elegant  letter-writer 
never  speaks  of  copjier  cash,  but  calls  them  "  green 
beetles;"  a  sheet  of  ])aper  he  calls  "a  flowery  scroll;" 
an  epistle  is  "a  wild  gi>nse."  Ihishand  and  wiic  are 
Ch'ang-sm,  "  tenor  and  treble ;  "  K'ang-li,  "  strength  and 


CHINESE  LETTER  WRi  riNG 


137 


beauty  ; )  //,/);  vci/.i,-,  "  duck  and  drake;  "  and  a  hundred 
other  pretty  tilings,  at  the  poet's  option.  A  man  is  a 
prince  and  his  wife  a  princess ;  his  house  a  palace  and  his 
children  a  ])li(iiiix  hnxxl.  To  repay  the  kindness  of  par- 
ents is  to  enuilate  the  stork  ;  to  return  a  hnrrowed  article 
is  to  restore  the  fjein  ;  a  man  of  genius  employed  in  a  work 
of  drudgery— as  Charles  Lamb  in  the  India  Office — is 
"a  race-lmrse  in  a  salt-wagon." 

These  are  but  a  few  specimens  of  a  sort  of  dialect  that 
has  its  own  dictionaries  without  number  or  limit;  and 
of  wliicli  every  riader  of  Chinese  is  under  the  necessity 
of  knowing  something,  if  he  does  not  master  it.  Per- 
haps the  best  key  to  it  for  any  student,  native  or  foreign, 
is  a  collection  of  t.r;i  chang,  or  of  well-written  letters, 
such  as  those  of  our  obscure  friend  Liu  Chia  Chu.  In  dic- 
tionaries and  cyclopaedias,  or  in  such  a  useful  hand-book 
as  Mayers'  Chinese  Reader's  Manual,  he  will  find  gems 
arranged  as  in  a  mineralogical  caliinet ;  but  in  these  com- 
positions he  meets  them  in  their  proper  setting.  The 
object  of  such  works  is  to  aid,  not  to  supersede,  the 
reading  of  difficult  authors — as  a  certain  learned  Dutch- 
man proposed  to  supersede  Homer  by  presenting  the 
Homeric  archaeology  in  a  tabulated  form. 

We  now  proceed  to  the  substratum  of  facts  underly- 
ing the  gold  and  tinsel  of  which  we  have  been  speaking. 
Of  little  importance  in  themselves,  and  not  by  any  means 
thick-sown  tbroiiijh  these  pages,  they  are  still  not  devoid 
of  interest  as  illustrations  of  character,  personal  and  na- 
tional. 

It  was  from  the  l-tters  of  Cicero  that  ^fr.  ^Tiddleton 
drew  the  principal  materials  for  his  admirable  life  of  the 
great  Roman  statesman.  But  the  letters  of  Giu  Futze 
or  Su  Timg  P'o  would  furnish  scanty  materials  for  a 
history  of  their  lives;  and  meagre  indeed  are  the  out- 


138  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

lines  of  biography  which  we  are  able  to  extract  from 

the  sentimental  effusions  of  Liu  Cbia  C  lui. 

Our  author  first  drew  his  breath,  and  with  it  what 
poetic  inspiration  he  possessed,   amidst  the  mountain 

s.-iiKiy  of  Suiulicrn  liunan,  about  the  middle  of  the 
reign  ()f  t'liia  C  liing  (circa  1810).  Bom  in  a  rustic  vil- 
lage not  far  from  the  city  of  Hsin  Hua,  he  came  of  a 
family  distinguished  for  sclmlarship— ;i  fact  of  wliicii  he 
never  ceases  to  reiiiiinl  the  rcaiKr;  ami  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  he  inherited  taleiU.  though  his  patrimony  in- 
cluded little  else. 

i!oasting  somewhat  if  his  early  precocity,  he  hints  at 
youthful  dissipations  as  having  proved  fatal  to  his  career 
as  a  scholar,  and  planted  the  seeds  of  unending  regrets. 
He  failed— probably  from  a  defective  chirography.  as 
many  a  worthier  man  has  done — to  win  the  first  or  lowest 
degree  in  the  civil-service  examinations;  and  about  the 
age  of  thirty  he  removed  with  his  family  to  Can- 
ton, forgetting,  it  seems,  to  liquidate  certain  debts  of 
honor. 

Concern!Hl  in  the  coniluct  of  a  charity-school,  Liu, 
thinking  that  charity  ought  to  begin  at  home,  "  borrowed  " 
a  portion  of  the  funds  to  meet  his  own  necessities.  Ar- 
rived at  Canton,  he  learned  with  much  regret  that  the 
slight  liberty  he  had  taken  with  its  capital  was  likely  to 
occasion  the  dissolution  of  the  school.  Against  this  he 
protests  with  much  eloquence ;  but  has  nothing  more  sub- 
stantial to  encourage  the  good  work  than  "  promises  to 
pay."  In  this  connection  his  reference  to  himself,  as  a 
good  example  of  the  Iwnefits  of  education,  is,  to  say  the 
least,  a  little  naive. 

After  this,  we  are  not  surprised  to  find  many  epistles 
filled  with  complaints  of  poverty.  He  has  v^^ork  enough, 
but  scant  remuneration.    Great  men  admire  his  genius. 


CHINESE  LETTER  WRITING  139 


and  load  him  with  compliments ;  but,  like  virtue,  which 
Ik-  (lues  not  much  resemble  in  any  other  respect,  Imdatur 

el  alget. 

From  one  friend  he  begs  the  loan  of  a  "  few  hundred 

piccts  of  f^uld,  "  ftnm  atidtlicr  lie  luirrovvs  .1  suit  of  decent 
apparel.  (Jood  niotkis  these  letters  for  one  wlio  has 
much  to  do  in  the  line  of  l^epginji  or  liorrowinpf 

All  this  time  I.iu'>  family  i>  iiuria-iii.i;  at  a  rather 
alarming  rate ;  nut  that  he  has  any  children  born,  but  from 
time  to  time  he  takes  a  new  beauty  into  his  harem  in 
the  hope  that  children  will  follow.  ( )ne  is  presented  to 
him  by  a  friend ;  another,  not  unnaturally,  runs  away, 
or,  as  he  enplKinislically  terms  it,  "  carries  her  guitar 
to  another  door." 

A  correspondent  of  comparatively  severe  morals  ex- 
postulates with  Liu  on  this  seenuiig  ahandonuu  nt  to  a  life 
of  sensuality.  The  latter  replies  by  drawing  an  affecting 
picture  of  an  ajjed  father  who  cannot  die  in  peace  with- 
<  I  I  the  joy  of  embracing  a  grandson ! 

At  length  his  hopes  are  awakened  only  to  meet  with 
tlisappointment — miu-  of  his  wives  presentin^^  him  wiih  a 
daughter.  The  little  creature  appears  not  to  be  alto- 
gether unwelcome,  and,  in  fact,  makes  for  herself  a 
warm  jilace  in  Iht  fatlu  r's  heart  ;  thout^h  he  frequently 
alludes  to  her  in  uncomplimentary  terms  borrowed  from 
the  classic  odes : 

"  A  girl  is  born ;  in  coarse  cloth  wound, 
With  a  tile  for  a  toy,  let  her  lie  on  the  ground,"  etc. 

The  spell  broken,  another  of  his  ladies  crowns  hi;;  desires 
by  giving  him  a  son.  whose  advet*t  is  duly  hailed  by  a 
flourish  of  trumpets,  uid  further  quotations  from  the 
Book  of  Odes : 


,40  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

"  A  son  U  born ;  on  an  ivory  bcJ, 
Wrap  him  iii  r.ununl  ..f  purple  and  red; 
Gold  and  jiwils  f..r  plaything*  bri  (? 
To  the  noble  boy  who  rfiall  iervc  ki.ii<. 

In  a  few  months  tlus  dnhl  of  niatv  :■.  ,  s  -  a-kens  ami 
.li,.s.  Tlu-  ,liscnn>.4ato  lall.cr  muuiu  U.,)l>.  and  mis 
many  Ou-ols  with  imli.di.'iis  trislia. 

Alxjut  this  time  the  «kHjrs  of   >tV  ■  '  !■     •ri  .cut,  I  ••- 
f,„.  uhiH'  In  ha.l  1.f.-n  mj  Vmg  uai  r,.»;      .  vmg  laiL  . 
to  tina  li.c  k..v  i.i  his  larlicr  youth),  i.c^-an  Mmvly  Xo  o^^r^ 
before  him.  Apix>inted  nia^Mstrate  of  a  .uh-.!.  trKi  tl 
country,  called  Lo  Kang.  he  contrived  to  -  n.l  >..nK-  mu- 
to  act  in  lus  stead  (subletting  the  profits  of  the  posttiof}). 
while  he  remaine«l  at  the  provincial  capital  n  iho  wui'.t 
„{  the  literary  society  wliioh  lu  .-ve-l  -)  .K-  il> 

Appointed  to  KuwUx^n.  o.t  the  ina.nla.ul  u,,  -Mte  to 
HonKkunp.  l.iu  again  finds  excuses  for  not  repa.nng  to 
his  p,M;  aTul  the  govcnv.r.  olTc  UA  hy  his  ,  nlm-ss. 
cancel,  the  appointmeiu  After  .me  penance,  he  i.  re- 
stored lo  favor  and  offered  another  jwst.  such  as  Casar 
.  himself  would  have  preferred  to  l.e.ng  the  .eco„,l  man  at 
Rome  Taught  bv  experience,  he  lost  no  time  m  mstalluig 
himseli  in  h.>  new  yamen.  Its  roof  leaks,  its  wa»*  ^«-«^ 
crumbling,  and  all  its  apartments  filled  with  rubl.sh  but 
to  c<-.5.,.„.ate  for  Ml  this,  it  contains  a  throne,  whi.  ..  it 
ho  had  read  MiUo.i.  !ie  might  have  compared  with  that  oi 
the  "  anarch  old  "  who  ruled  the  realms  of  .  ..  s. 

Here  he  '  n,! .  a  new  or,le,  f  talents  called  into  requi- 
sition: he  has  to  deal  uilh  ots  instead  of  v  -^rds.  and 
is  e.  .dentlv  proud  of  the  cccss  with  whicl,  he  ja-r 
forms  the 'function^  of  a  i.;c-favnring  u.  w. lit  one 
of  his  judgments  as  a  mu.U  .f  its  kind  U  In  trays,  how- 
tver  the  fact  that  his  rig!  ;  hand  has  imt  i..r,.  tien  ts 
cunning;  that  he  continues  to  be  a  rhetorician  in  spue 


CHIN^  E  LETTER  WRITING 


of  himseh.  and  >  more  at 
in  pronouncing'  i  "-cnli  i 

L'niqiic  aimmg  tin-  ru.  ..iiii  ,  i 
tolarv  |H'n.  lus  rf|«irt  of  this  law 

i  iti  has  a!-  '  ^Hvfii  iis  ,)  f, 

i  composii  li  .11  'h  nit  )t  I 
times  assisl    :  i  xnn    K-r,  ;i'  »nn 

i  'mi  '         ■   Ol    .:  .t  i. 

i.-.\ainii"     I 'lis,  liiu 
officers  arc  m|ui-i'  !  t> 

(ilU-   i)f    Ifi'    o  I  (..i-int 

the  high   mtluirifi.  i 
level  with  \  '•  h 

letters,  hut  !s  li  111 
paper-  that  v  n 
praisi  iiui.il  as 
that  liii  the  ill  tin  .  I 
since  ha  ui  •  'liphes^ 
Liu's  lerar  t,i}it\  -  <• 
■;;nifir  ' 


>M  hp- 

i«s  at  1 

vi- 
rtus w 
ions 


IK  in   .    !m};    lecture  than 


■ILK    'JMs  I  1  hi^  Cpis- 

it    (Ttjinds  us  fhat 
-  '      nother  ics 
h'  iie- 
!«ca      ,1  ihe 
■Uiiary 

I  u  ctant 

pr  a  On 

by 
>>n  a 


prcsei; 
V'Hor 

m-t  ( 


-j  mt 

on  iiis  tetc-d 
His  HTOral  cha 
principle.  ! 

>!  ',T  il  ilT 


<  many  uf  his 

[If  tlic  fnitunatc 
in.sclvt  s  \vh(  thcr  tlit 
?  with  the  reflection 
lu  cinirts  he  inipht  Ion>; 
iof>  ut  the  literary  arena, 
recognized  by  a  host  of 
i)ies  of      >  essavs.  send 


ist      I-  liicatricals  in  his 
-  r!Kii     loiibtftil.   A  polyg- 
he  vir  u's  (if  an  as'  i  tic 
lati    te  lilxtiinisni  of  certain 
deed  '  lone  nothing  worse  than 
ht-wiwBjed  songsters,  he  would 
closely  in  the  footsteps  of  saints 
tent:   t    To  vindicate  for  h  'l;  -If 
free  spirit — cie  tiiat  spurns 
linor  morals  " — he  mingles 
M  doves." 

1'  r     IS.       he>  is  that  the  silly  occupants  of 

his     n  dove  cot  ar=  incap»i>ie  of  appreciating  his  genius; 


.X>«='tS. 

ill 


d  hi 
;!i  1 

t, .. 


nr 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


while  some  of  these  unappropriated  ones,  like  tlic  hctaerae 
of  (ircicc.  liad  tluir  cliaiiiis  enhanced  hy  tlie  advantages 
of  educalion.  He  givo  lis  a  leller  whicli  he  wrote  to 
one  of  this  elass,  with  hypoeritical  niorahty  recommend- 
ing iier  to  take  refuge  in  a  Imuse  of  rehgion. 

In  an  epistle  to  another  friend,  he  gives  us  reason  to 
suspect  that  even  the  vestals  of  Buddha  were  not  sacred 
in  his  eyes;  an.l  llial  with  liini  sacrilege  was  necessary 
to  give  the  highest  llavor  to  license.  Freely  unfolding  his 
inner  life,  and  trenching  often  on  forbidden  ground,  it  is 
some  tiling  in  his  favor  that  he  is  always  elegant  and  never 
indecent. 

Alter  liiis  account  of  his  morals,  it  would  be  useless  to 
inquire  for  his  religion.  He  says,  indeed,  very  little  on 
the  suliject.  He  alludes  to  a  "  Creator"  more  than  once, 
but  in  language  uf  stuilied  levity,  showing  that  to  him 
the  author  of  nature  is  not  a  "  living  Clod." 

.\s  to  outward  oliservances.  he  conforms  to  popular 
usage;  he  believes  in  fate,  and,  impatient  to  kiu)W  its  de- 
crees, applies  to  a  professional  fortune-teller ;  in  all  these 
points  only  too  true  a  type  of  the  average  literati  of  his 
country. 

The  bonndary-linc  between  friendly  and  official  corre- 
spondence is  not  easy  to  trace.  It  is  to  the  former  that 
we  confine  ourselves  in  the  present  communication ;  but 
it  will  not  be  amiss  to  remark  that  much  of  the  best 
writing  in  the  Chinese  language  may  he  found  on  inter 
mediate  ground  between  formal  business  documents  and 
friendly  letters. 

In  this  class  of  compositions,  vaguely  described  as 
official  letters,  the  grace  of  the  polished  cpisllc  is  often 
ailded  to  the  directness  and  force  of  the  despatch  style— 
a  happy  combination,  of  which  some  of  the  best  speci- 
mens may  be  seen  in  the  published  correspondence  of 


CHINESE  LETTER  WRITING  143 


Hu  Lin-Yell,  canonized  under  the  title  of  IIu  Wen  Cheng 
Kung ;  and  in  that  of  Ch'en  Wen  Chung  Kung,  who,  hav- 
ing won  three  times  in  succession  the  first  literary  honor 
of  his  province  and  of  the  Empire,  received  from  that 
circumstance  the  sobriquet  of  Ch'en  !San  Yuan,  "  Cti'cn 
the  Triple  First." 


DC 


CHINESE  FABLES 

THE  stuilcnt  of  Cliiiu'so  inquires  in  vain  for  any 
collection  of  native  fables;  and  he  feels  their 
absence  as  a  personal  inconvenience  when  he 
recalls  his  obligations  to  .Ksop  and  riuedriis,  Lessing  ami 
La  Fontaine,  for  alleviating  the  toil  of  his  earlier  studies 
in  the  classic  languages  of  ancient  and  modem  Europe. 
This  dcticicncv  is  the  more  disappointing,  as  the  constant 
occurrence  of  the  words  pi  fang  in  our  colloquial  exercises 
leads  us  to  expect  to  find  the  fields  of  literature  thick- 
sown  w  ith  every  variety  of  similitude.  Parables  and  alle- 
gories are,  indeed,  not  wanting,  but  their  congener,  the 
fable,  seems  never  to  have  existed,  or  in  some  mysterious 
way  to  have  l)econie  well-nigh  extinct. 

Nor  is  this  last  supimsition  a  mere  fancy:  We  turn 
up  from  time  to  time  what  seem  to  be  fossil  fragments 
enough  to  give  it,  to  say  the  least,  as  good  a  foundation 
as  some  scientific  theories  have  to  rest  on.  l"ur  what 
are  those  numeroiis  proverbial  expressions  drawn  from 
the  habits  of  animals  but  the  ghosts,  or  rather  the  skele- 
tons, of  vanished  fables.  Hut  whether  such  origin  '> 
ever  existed,  certain  it  is  that  nothing  is  more  easy  or 
natural  than  to  expand  these  phrases  into  the  full  di- 
mensions of  the  pro()cr  ajxilogue. 

Take,  for  instance,  "  the  sheep  in  a  tiger's  skin."  "  when 
the  hare  dies  the  fox  weeps,"  "  he  who  nurses  a  tiger's 
cub  will  rue  his  kindness,"  etc.  Do  not  these  seem  to 
point  back  to  ancient  fables  as  their  source;  just  as  we 

144 


CHINESE  FABLES  145 

know  "  the  fox  and  the  grapes,"  "  the  ass  in  a  Uon's 
skin,"  and  other  proverbial  expressions  current  among  us 

were  derived  from  fables? 
But  how  did  such  originals,  supposing  them  to  have 

existed,  come  to  be  lost?  We  re])Iy.  they  were  either 
never  reduced  to  writing,  or  not  written  in  a  style  adapted 
to  the  taste  of  the  country.  For  apes  past  the  Chinese 
liavi'  afTccted  an  extreme  sententiousness  in  the  style  of 
their  literary  composition.  This  would  naturallv  lead 
them  to  extract  the  living  spirit  and  to  reject  the  cum- 
brous form  of  such  fabfes  as  might  spring  up  in  the 
humbler  walks  of  tiieir  folk-lore.  ThUs  they  may  have 
had  their  unknown  I'ilpays  and  their  mute,  inglorious 

J?lSOj)S. 

At  all  events,  the  defect  of  which  we  are  speaking 
was  not  occasioned,  as  some  would  have  us  infer,  by  a 
want  of  imagination.  For  Chinese  literature,  while  it 
contains  nothing  that  rises  to  the  dignity  of  the  epic 
muse,  yet  teei-  with  the  productions  of  a  fertile  fancy- 
metamorphoses  as  numerous  (if  not  as  elegant)  as  those 
of  C)vid;  faiiy  t.iks  more  monstrous  than  Grimm's;  and 
narratives  of  adventure  (generally  accepted  as  sober  his- 
tory) as  strange  as  those  of  Sindbad  or  Gulliver.  It  is, 
we  reinat.  a  .jiiestin,,  ,,f  taste  rather  than  talent ;  and  thisi 
we  thmk,  is  borne  out  by  the  reception  which  the  Chinese 
gave  to  Mr.  Thoms  excellent  translation  of  ^sop,  a 
work  which,  instead  of  finding  its  way  into  every  house- 
hold, is  rarely  to  be  tnet  with  even  in  the  stalls  of  a  book- 
seller. The  mandarins  suspected  that  wolves  and  bears 
were  masks  for  dangerous  doctrines  and  biting  satire; 
while  neither  prince  nor  peasant  has  cared  enough  about 
the  production  to  '    'p  it  alive. 

As  to  talent.  >.  we  will  not  assert  that  the  Chinese 
could  have  exc.       n  this  department  of  literature,  there 


\ 


146  THi.  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

is  proof,  we  tlrnk,  iliai  tiu-v  an'  not  wlioUy  destitute  of 
a  capacity  for  it.  Tliis  will  l)e  fciiml  in  tlic  following 
fables,  derived  from  various  sources,  which  we  give  by 
wav  of  siiccimen.  li<i])ini,'-  tiiai  rradiTs  of  (  liinesc  will  acid 
to  tlic  number  any  that  happen  to  conic  under  their 
notice : 

1.  The  Kinp  of  CUu  inquiring  with  some  surprise  why 
the  people  of  the  .North  were  so  frightened  at  tlu-  ap- 
proach of  Chou  Ilsi  Hsii,  one  of  his  ministers  rei)lii  d  as 
follows :  "  A  tiger  who  happened  to  be  preceded  by  a 
fox  was  greatly  astonished  to  see  all  the  animals  running 
away  from  the  fox,  little  suspecting  that  their  terror  was 
inspired  by  himself.  It  is  ni>t  L'liou,  1  •  your  Majesty,  of 
whom  the  people  oi  the  North  are  in  dread." 

2.  "  I  may  go  out  and  play  without  any  danger  now," 
said  a  little  mouse  to  its  mother.  "  The  old  cat  has  be- 
come religious ;  I  see  her  with  her  eyes  shut,  engaged  in 
praying  to  Buudha." 

Grimalkin's  devotions,  however,  did  not  prevent  her 
seizing  the  silly  little  creature  as  soon  as  it  ventured 
near. 

3.  A  tiger  who  had  never  seen  an  ass  was  terrified  at 

the  sound  of  liis  voice,  and  w.is  alxnit  to  run  away,  when 
the  latter  turned  his  heels  and  prejjared  to  kick. 

"  If  that  is  your  mode  of  attack,"  said  the  tiger,  "  I 
know  how  tn  deal  with  you." 

4.  ,\  tiger  having  clapped  his  paw  on  an  unlucky 
monkey,  the  latter  begged  to  be  released  on  the  score  of 
his  irsigiiitu  ance,  and  promised  to  show  the  tiger  wlu  re 
he  might  find  a  more  vahiahle  prey.  The  tiger  complied, 
and  the  monkey  conductetl  him  to  a  hiU-side  where  an 
ass  was  feeding — an  animal  which  the  tiger,  till  then, 
had  never  seen. 

"  My  good  brother, '  said   the  ass   to  the  monkey, 


CHINESE  FABLES 


»47 


"  hitherto  yon  have  always  brought  me  two  tigers,  how 
is  it  that  you  have  only  brought  me  one  to-day  ?  " 

Hearing  these  words,  the  tiger  tied  for  his  life.  Thus 
a  ready  wit  may  often  ward  off  great  dangers. 

5.  A  tipcr.  finding  a  cat  very  prolific  in  devices  for 
catching  game,  placed  himself  under  her  instruction.  At 
length  he  was  told  there  was  nothing  more  to  be  learned. 
"Have  you,  then,  taught  mc  all  your  tricks?"  he  in- 
quired. ■'  Ves,"  replied  the  cat.  "  Then,"  said  the  tiger, 
"  yoti  are  of  no  further  tise,  and  so  I  shall  eat  you."  The 
cat,  however,  sprang  lightly  into  the  branches  of  a  tree, 
and  smiled  at  his  disappointment.  She  had  not  taught 
him  all  her  tricks. 

The  Chinese  apply  tliis  to  their  foreign  instructors 
in  the  art  of  war,  and  evidently  suspect  that  some  master 
secret  is  always  held  in  reserve. 


X 


WATIVE  TRACTS  UF  CHIKA 

THE  word  '■  tract."  in  its  more  peneral  sense,  !^;ni- 
lies  a  treatise  on  any  subject.  In  the  special 
sense,  which  the  activity  of  our  Tract  Societies 
has  brought  into  um  ,  it  iman.s  a  small  lKX>k  in  which  the 
sanctions  of  rilij,'iim  arc  hroui^'ht  forward  in  support  of 
morality.  Its  aim  is  tu  cnli;.'hten  the  Inunan  mind,  and 
to  purify  tlic  widening  stream  of  human  life. 

That  the  ponplf  cif  tliat  ain-ient  empire,  who  have  an- 
ticipated us  in  so  many  discoveries,  and  in  every  kind 
of  social  experiment,  should  have  gone  before  us  in  the 
creation  of  a  tract-literature,  is  not  sur])risinf^.  In  China, 
as  in  other  countries,  one  of  the  earliest  uses  of  written 
speech  was  to  extend  the  influence  of  good  men,  by 
causing  their  words  to  reach  a  wider  circle,  iK'vond  the 
bounds  of  personal  intercourse,  which  in  space  is  limited 
to  a  few  miles,  and  in  time  to  a  few  years. 

I'or  the  same  rc.ison^.  une  uf  tlic  first  applications  of 
the  art  of  printing,  in  which  China  was  six  hundred  years 
in  advance  of  Europe,  was  to  multiply  tracts;  and  the 
aggregate  mass  of  its  publications  in  this  department 
has,  in  the  course  of  ten  centuries,  attained  an  enormous 
development.  To  enumerate  even  the  most  poi)ular  of 
them  would  necessitate  tlic  recitation  of  a  long  catalogue; 
and  to  offer  an  outline  criticism  of  each  would  he  an 
endless  task.  They  fall,  liowevcr,  nito  certain  w-jll-dc- 
fined  categories,  such  as: — 

1. — Those  which  incule.it(  morality  in  general. 

148 


NATIVE  TRACTS  OF  CHINA 


2.  — Those  which  persuade  to  the  practice  of  particular 

virtues. 

3.  — Those  which  seek  to  deter  from  particular  vices. 

4.  — 'i'hose  that  are  written  in  the  interest  of  particular 
religions  or  divinities. 


One  or  two  in  each  class,  as  types  of  the  whole  will  be 
sufficient  to  exhibit  their  character  and  scope. 

In  the  first  class,  a  leading  place  might  properly  be 
assigned  to  flu-  discoursis  <jf  Confucius  and  Mencius, 
and  to  numerous  treatises  of  later  philosophers;  but,  as 
we  are  accustomed  to  make  a  distinction  between  scrip- 
tures and  tracts,  tluse,  or  at  least  those  first  mentioned, 
are  to  be  regarded  as  the  sacred  scriptures  of  the  Chinese. 

With  us,  many  tracts  consist  almost  entirely  of  Scrip- 
ture passages,  selected  and  arranged.  In  the  native 
literature  of  the  Chinese,  similar  tracts  based  on  their 
best  books  may  be  found  in  great  numbers. 

One  such  is  cilUd  tin-  Mm-^  llsiii  Fao  Chien, — Mirror 
of  the  Heart.  It  crmtaiiis  a  choice  cmIIc  'ion  of  the  best 
sayings  of  the  best  men  tiiat  country  has  produced. 
Those  sayings  are  gems,  neatly  cut.  highly  polished,  and 
sparkling  with  the  lii;ht  nf  truth.  In  other  tracts  they 
may  be  difYerently  arranged ;  but  everywhere  they  shine 
with  the  mild  radiance  of  wisdom  and  virtue. 

A  colKotion  of  this  kiiul,  called  Miui:;  Hsicn  Chi, — Say- 
ings of  the  Wise,  is  a  great  favorite  in  Peking.  It  differs 
from  the  tract  last  named  in  drawing  its  wise  saws  chiefly 
from  modern  s. -urns.  It  upens  with  the  noble  maxim: 
— "  Only  practice  good  works,  and  ask  no  questions  about 
your  future  destiny."  The  first  chapter  ends  with  the 
encouraging  assurance: — "  Human  desires  can  be  broken 
off;  Heaven's  laws  can  be  observed." 


ISO  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


Another  maxim  gives  the  general  tenor  of  its  teach* 

inf^s : — "  All  things  Ikjvv  to  real  worth  ;  happiness  is  stored 
up  hy  honesty."  Every  sentence  is  a  proverb;  anJ 
though,  like  the  Hebrew  proverbs,  there  are  many  that 
inculcate  thrift  and  worlilly  wisdom,  there  .ire  not  a  few 
that  rise  to  a  higher  level.  Its  religion  is  unhappily  of  a 
very  colorless  description, — contrasting  strongly  with 
the  doctrine  of  direct  responsihility  to  a  living  (iod,  which 
pervades  the  proverbs  of  the  Jews, — making  their  religion 
the  most  practical  of  their  concerns.  The  idea  of  direct 
responsibility  is  nut  indeed  altogether  wanting,  though 
in  this  class  of  tracts  it  is  not  sufficiently  insisted  on. 
In  this,  and  in  nearly  all  similar  collections,  we  find  the 
warning  that — 

"  Tlie  goils  behold  an  evil  thought, 
As  clearly  as  a  flash  o£  lightning; 
And  whispers  uttered  in  a  secret  place, 
To  them  sound  loud  as  thunder." 

The  Family  Monitor  of  Clui  I\)  Lu  so  well  known,  sets 
forth  an  admirable  system  of  precepts  for  the  ordering  of 
a  household,  in  which  children  are  brought  up  with 
judicious  severity,  and  servants  treated  with  considerate 
tenderness, — purity  and  honor  being  vital  elements  of  the 
domestic  atmosphere. 

The  Ti  Tzc  Kuci,  or  Guide  to  the  Young,  though  less 
known,  is  a  book  of  a  higher  order.  Composed  almost 
in  our  own  times,  in  imitation  of  the  fr.r-fametl  Trim.  'H- 
cal  Classic,  ii  surpasses  its  model,  and  shows,  if  we  may 
judge  hy  words  alone,  that  the  line  of  sages  is  not  yet  ex- 
tinct. In  the  second  chapter,  '.-ntitled  Truth  and  Virtue, 
we  find  a  doctrine  too  rarely  taught  in  Chinese  books: — 

"  In  evf-y  word  you  utter. 
Let  truth  be  first ; 


NATIVE  TRACTS  OF  CHINA 


Deceit  and  f.ilseliooil, 
How  can  you  endure  t 

Do  not  lightly  speak 

Of  what  you  do  n  -t  certainly  know; 

Things  not  riglii, 

Do  nut  lightly  prnniisc : 

If  you  do  proniisf. 

Whether  you  go  forward  or  go  back. 
You  are  equally  in  fault." 

Here  is  a  neat  definition: — 

"  To  do  \vr  ^n(j  without  intention 
Is  an  error ; 

To  do  wrong  with  purpose 
Is  a  crime." 

The  author  adds: — 

"  Vour  errors,  if  you  correct  them. 
End  in  no  error ; 
If  you  hiUu  or  cloak  them, 
You  add  one  sin  more." 

The  Sacred  Edict,  containing  the  maxims  of  Kang  Hsi 

amplified  b}-  Viiiij?  Clienp,  is  not  too  large  to  be  classed 
with  tracts.  Each  chapter  may,  indeed,  be  regarded  as  a 
tract  on  a  special  subject.  Nothing  ^ives  a  better  view 
of  the  kind  of  morals  inculcated  by  the  head  of  the  gov- 
ernment— morals  which  harmonize  in  a  wonderful  man- 
ner with  some  of  the  teachings  of  Christianity. 

The  tracts  i'lat  I  have  nientidnid  emanate  from  the 
school  of  pure  ("mfucianism.  They  are  n-^t  Trelij,'ious, 
for  they  everywhere  admit  the  supremacy  of  a  vague 
power  called  Heaven.  They  admit,  further,  that  that 
power,  whatever  it  may  be,  is  not  indifferent  to  human 
conduct 


152 


THE  LORK  OF  CATHAY 


Does  not  the  venoi.i!>lf  B.iuh  of  Cluiiti::i-s,  t!ii-  most 
ancient  of  the  canunical  writings,  expressly  vlcclarc  that — 

"  On  those  who  store  up  righteousness. 
Heaven  svnds  drnvn  a  hundncl  blessings; 

Ami  \\\\"    NTi'  uji  ill  .liMit, 

Ikaviii  hhKiImuii  :;  Iniinlu.l  unts." 

Tliis  sentence  re-appears  in  all  these  tracts ;  ant!  the 
doctrine  of  a  providential  retrihntinn.  nnfailinp  for  the 
poocl,  unrelenting^  fur  tlie  evil,  alVmniil,  aiiii)lirK d,  ami 
illustrated,  as  a  canlina!  truth  which  no  man  can  duubt. 
lly  this  school  it  is  taught,  as  it  was  by  the  Sadducccs  of 
Judca,  withoi;t  reference  to  hojH?s  or  fears  connected  with 
a  belief  in  a  life  ti)  I'lur.e.  The  certainly  ol  i)rosperity  in 
this  worKl  as  tlie  reward  of  virtue,  and  .if  sliame  and 
suffering  as  the  jK-nalty  of  vice,  is  the  niotivi'  most  con- 
'-t.-mtly  .ippcMlid  to,  though  it  sluuiM  iii>t  he  fi uirottiii 
that,  in  a  passage  already  quoted,  a  suhhmer  conception 
is  set  forth : — "  Only  do  gtiod,  and  ask  no  questions  as  to 
\(iur  future  destiny," — as-urinij  u-.  that  some  among  the 
moralists  of  tiie  inire  L'onfiician  school  migiit  unite  with 
us  in  the  petition  of  Pope's  Universal  Prayer — 

"  What  conscience  tells  me  should  be  done, 
Or  wririi  i  iiic  nut  to  do, 
This,  teach  nic  mure  than  hell  to  shun. 
That,  more  than  heaven  pursue." 

The  experience  of  morahsts  in  China  coincides,  how- 
ever, with  that  of  \hr  West  in  showing  that  the  theory  of 
virtue  as  its  own  reward  is  too  n-tined  for  tlie  mass  of 
mankind.    One,  here  ami  there,  who  is  moulded  of 

{)nr(  r  rlav.  may  he  seized  with  a  kin<l  of  Platonic  passion 
for  virltK',  Init  the  great  majority  nrc  so  constituted  th,nt 
to  them  virtue  has  no  charms  aside  from  happiness.  Nor 


NATIVE  TRACTS  OF  CHINA  153 


is  this  ol  nLCc:-.hit)  an  ignulilc  .-.i  iUiuicnt ;  lor,  in  tlii-s  case, 
what  (jtxi  has  joined  toRether  it  may  not  be  possible  for 
man  !o  luit  ai^inidtr, — "  1  iapiiiiu  ss  ( lo  ([uotc  a  Chiiicjio 
.saying),  fuHows  in  tiie  footsteps  of  virluf,  as  shadow 
follows  substance."  Are  we  not  told  that  even  Moses  had 
"  r(.>])icl  unto  the  rcconipinst-  of  the  regard?  " 

U  lie n  iliiddhists  hnjMjrtcd  from  India  a  distinct  notion 
of  a  future  life,  their  doctrine  of  trnn-imiKration  was  first 
adopted  l>y  '.'10  'l  aoists,  an<i  aftcruar  i^  ain  ptid  hy  many 
who  never  ceased  to  call  iliemselves  disciples  of  Con- 
fucius. All  parties  felt  tliat  an  i^imense  reinforcement 
was  aildi'l  ti,  ihe  sanctions  of  morality.  Instead  of  the 
shadowy  nloa  of  a  vicarious  recompense,  reserved  for 
one's  j)osterity  in  some  remote  aj^e,  came  tlie  conviction 
that  each  individual  soul,  sooner  or  later,  inevitably  reaps 
the  reward  of  its  deeds;  — a  ooiniction  which  took  so 
strong  a  hold  on  the  public  mind  as  to  become  the  foun- 
daticHi  for  a  mixed  school  of  moral  teaching. 

In  tin.'  tracts  of  this  mix-  d  s.  ''ool,  ("onfuciaiiism  may 
in  some  cases  to  be  the  leadnij^  element,  Taoism  or  liuil- 
dhism  in  others ;  hut  the  most  powerful  argument  to  incite 
to  i;ihm!,  and  deter  fmm  evil,  is  always  the  certainty  of 
retril)ution  in  a  future  life. 

The  two  most  celebrated  tracts  in  this  department,  if 
not  in  the  whole  cycle  of  Chinese  literature,  are  dis- 
tinctly on  the  subject  of  retribution.  They  are  tin  Kan 
Ving  P'ien.  and  the  Yin  Chi  IVcn.  Each  b»-ars  the  name 
of  a  Taoist  divinity,— one  goes  under  t!  aus])ices  of 
LaotEC,  the  other  under  those  of  Wen  Ch'  ir.  ( )ne  sets 
out  with  the  declaration  that  "  Haj)piness  and  Misery 
never  enter  a  door  until  they  are  invited  hy  the  occiqiant 
of  the  house."  "  They  are  the  reward  that  follows  i.ood 
and  evil,  as  surely  as  a  shadow  follows  a  body."  Ihe 
other  begins  with  a  statement  tliat  its  beatified  author 


>54 


THE  LOR    OF  CATHAY 


practist  .l  vinue  tlirouKli  no  (owcr  tli.in     vi-ntccn  lives  or 
stages  ui  txisti-iK-i.'  hvktn   v  attaiiu<l  to  |)erfcct  felicity. 
Starting  from  t!  is  point,  each  unfoUls  its  text  witli  uil 
niira' k-  luiiMin^j  a  rainhow  arch  of  virtues,  with 

one  I  ;  rrstinj,'  on  tlie  earth,  anii  the  o.  ler  li>st  in  the 
hhje  of  heaven  ;  while  the  vices  are  depicted  in  fiery  colors, 
on     1  u  r -}.;r.  mini  of  iitlor  (I  'rknt  ■-s. 

Willie  on  this  branch  of  ilit  >iubjfct.  a  very  vulgar 
tract  ought  tn  Ix?  noticed,  which  has  perhaps  a  wider  cur 
rency  than  cillur  of  the  preceding'  Like  tln'iu,  the  )  ii 
Li  Ch'ao  Cliiiait,  or  Stnii^  of  I'ccrls,  is  devoted  to  the 
doctrine  of  retribution.  Instead,  however,  of  insisting  on 
true  nioralitv.  this  treatise  spemls  its  force  in  clothin;^  the 
infernal  world  with  imaginary  iK.rrors.  They  arc  drawn 
in  such  colors  that  they  are  not  Dantesque,  but  grotesque. 
The  letter  press  is  accompanied  h>  pictorial  il  istr.ition?, 
in  V,  M.  h  lie  sees  a  soul  in  the  process  of  being  sawn 
in  tuain.  i.r  pounded  in  a  mortar;  a  bri.'.ge  from  which 
sinners  are  precipitated  into  a  field  of  i,  >-tumed  sword 
I>nints:  a  cauldron  of  Iwibng  water  in  which  they  stew 
and  simmer  for  ages:  then  a  bed  of  ice  on. which  they 
freeze  for  an  equal  oerio>l :  together  with  other  scenos 
iqualh  adapted  to  bring  a  wholesome  doctrine  into  con- 
tempt. 

An  idea,  to  which  this  gross  view  of  retribution  natur- 
allv  gives  rise,  is  that  of  openin.i:  a  del.t  and  credit  ac- 
count with  the  chancery  of  Heaven.  Such  account  books 
form  a  distinct  class  of  tracts.  Oh  one  side  are  ranged 
nil  conceivable  bad  actions,  each  sLimped  with  its  ex- 
change value  according  to  a  fixed  tariff.  The  Chinese 
moralist  has  not.  like  Tetzel,  gone  so  far  as  to  convert  this 
nimierical  vr.luatioti  int.,  a  sale  of  induls,a-nccs.  but  we 
may  be  ^ure  that  the  ingenuity  of  the  reader  does  not 
fail  to  find  out  a  way — 


NATIVE  TRACTS  OF  CHINA 


"  Tl<  .ittim    fi  -  sill.   111-  .1  lllltlil  |r 

Ity  (hiiMn  ll.in«>  1k'>  11. h  imlim.!  t.i.  " 

Thr  artilkc  of  kctping  vvitli  one's  heart  such  ,iti  ac- 
count current  is  one  which,  if  properly  conducted,  ini^ht 
ind  in  the  prncticf  of  virtin'.  l-'ranklin  tried  somiiliitii; 
of  the  kuid  with  success,  and  lie  tell  i.s  that  it  enatiled 
him  tu  make  such  proficiency  in  the  i^race  of  hunnUty 
that  lie  .vr.'ti'  proud  of  it.  \mon^  triii  ts  of  the  seccmd 
category — those  that  inculcate  particular  virtues-  I  nia\ 
mention  the  Hsiao  Chm^,  ur  M annul  of  I  dml  Duty,  de- 
scribed in  a  previous  chapter.  More  ancient  tiian  any  of 
its  class,  it  is  alv.  niorr  venerate.!,  lumj;  referred  '<\  (  \<n- 
fucius  himself,  wIium  discourses  on  the  subject  were 
taken  down  by  one  of  his  most  eminent  disciples.  While 
its  origin  is  a|'nr-\ phal,  its  fullness  and  perfection  ^'  ve 
it  the  weight  ut  a  classic,  while  the  simplicity  and  beauty 
of  its  style  make  it  specially  attractive  to  the  young,  for 
whose  iustruclini'  it  was  C(iTi)|M-cd, 

The  teachings      the  book  culminate  in  tli'  ;  .    'd  idea 
that  filial  piety,  as  ;     first  of  virtues,  may  fw  rm<<     '  '  • 
and  rej,'ulator  fur  tlu-  entire  conduct  of  life, 
has  reference  to  our  ancestors;  good  acts  rell(         .  , 
and  bad  acts  bring  disgrace  on  the  name  of  •  pr., 
j^enitor       The  process  of  reasonn  i;;  is  somew  hat  similar 
to  that  uliich  makes  the  love  of  God  the  law  of  a  Lliris 
tian  life;  but  how  feeble  the  sentiment  that  attaches  itself 
to  the  moss-covered  nionumeiUs  of  <lcad  ancestors,  in 
comparison  with  love  to  a  li\ing  (ioi:    whom  we  i.r.- 
privileged  to  call  our  Father  in  Heaven ! 

As  in  China  all  social,  political,  and  even  religious  obli- 
gations center  in  the  rntx  of  filial  piffy.  that  cardinal 
virtue  is.  as  might  be  expected,  the  theme  of  innumerable 
hortatory  compositions.  Some  of  them  are  excellent 
from  every  point  of  view ;  but  not  a  few  are  tinged  witfi 


156 


THE  U)RE  OF  CATHAY 


extrava.^aiur,  rxiollinj;  iIk-  nu-rits  of  children  who  have 
saved  llic  lives  of  pariiits  i)y  mixing  medicines  with  their 
own  blocHi,  or  giving  theni  broth  made  of  their  own 
flesli.* 

'l  licre  is  diic,  and  that  liie  most  popular  of  all,  which 
sinks  to  a  depth  of  stihness  quite  lievond  ar.ytliin^;  at- 
tained by  Mother  (ioose.    I  refer  to  the  stories  of  the 

Four-and-Twenty  i'ilial  (.  liildren. 

One  of  those  wurtiiies  is  held  in  remembrance  Ix-caiise, 
when  his  parents  had  lai)sed  into  secinul  ciiildlinod,  he,  at 
the  aije  <if  tlirecsci ire  and  tni.  iIiomcI  liiiii>eli  m  |)arti- 
coliiiired  vestiiKiils,  and  acted  tlie  down  U>  make  tlieni 
laiiijli.  Another,  when  a  little  Imiv,  was  seen  lying  on  the 
ice  :  ami,  wlu  ii  luu -.li' iiu  d  a>  In  olijtct,  replieil  that 
he  "wished  lu  null  it  to  catch  a  tish  lor  liis  niotlier." 
One  of  them,  hearing  a  physician  oimmend  the  virliu  s  of 
milk  freshly  dra\\n  iv<>\n  the  teats  iif  a  wild  deer,  dis- 
guised hiiiisell"  as  a  deer  in  order  to  iiriKure  the  ])recious 
beverage  for  his  invalid  mother,  (hie  of  them,  on  the 
occiinence  nf  a  thunder  .storm,  aKsa\s  threw  hiiuselt  ui\ 
his  mother's  grave,  .saying — "  Mother,  your  Ixiy  is  with 
you,  do  not  he  afraid."  The  other  stories  are  eijually 
foolish,  and  some  of  iIriu  |iMsiiively  wicked;  yet  Chi- 
nese artists  vie  with  each  other  in  embellishing  tliis 
precious  nonsciue.  and  tile  greatest  men  of  t  hina  make 
a  merit  of  writing  out  the  text  for  engraving  on 

VVO(  »1. 

is  it  not  probable  that  these  exaggerated  views  of  filial 

*  For  lilts  ptirfiiivi-  llic  is  (-KiiiTiKii  iy  takrn  from  tlii'  fatty 

portion-       flif  tliiKli  ;   l  ui  .i  morsel  of  the  liver  i-  morf  effira- 
ciiHis.    How  young  f^irU  i  for  il  is  always  woiiiiii  wlm  <lo  il )  can 
perforin  on  themselves  an  operatietn  of  such  difficulty  and  sur 
vivi-  is  a  mystery.    iVrhaps  the  IjeM  cxp!an.ition  is  thai  stich 
state-mem^  arc  fiRtires  nf  speiTh 


NATIVE  TRACTS  OF  CHINA 


piety  liavc  liad  a  tendi'iicy  t<i  dwnrf  otlu-r  virtues,  and  to 
distort  the  moral  cliaracicr  of  the  Chinese  people?  The 
duty  of  speaking  the  truth,  for  instance,  so  much  insisted 
on  hy  us  of  the  West,  is  seldom  touched  on  hy  the  moral 
writers  of  China.  While  the  foundation  stone  is  neglected 
by  tliese  builders,  what  masses  of  wood,  hay,  and  stubble, 
do  they  put  in  its  place! 

It  would  be  easy  to  load  a  cart  with  separate  treatises 
on  the  duty  of  showitif,'^  resjiect  to  written  or  printed 
paper,  .\hsurd  as  are  the  rhapsodies  which  Chinese 
scholars  indite  on  this  subject,  may  they  not  teach  a  le>:- 
son  to  onr  tract  distributors, — the  lesson  not  to  show  dis- 
respect to  their  own  carjjoes  of  printed  paper,  by  selling 
too  cheaply,  or  giving  too  iavishly? 

Then  ue  have  e.xhortations  in  equal  quantity  to  com- 
IKission  for  brute  animals.  The  radical  sentiment  is  just 
and  ])raise-\vortliy.  hut  the  writers  rush  into  extremes  as 
iKfore;  and,  instead  of  nourishing  a  well-poised,  active 
humanity  to  man,  they  make  a  merit  of  emancipating 
hirds  and  fish,  and  of  succi  iriiij.j  ants  that  are  struggling 
in  the  water.  Under  the  intUience  of  this  literature,  a 
society  has  been  formed  in  Peking  for  the  release  of 
captive  sparrows ;  but  I  have  yet  to  hear  that  any  society 
has  been  organized  for  the  suppression  of  the  sale  of 
little  children, — a  traffic  which  is  openly  carried  on  in  all 
the  cities  of  China !  ( )ur  own  Cowper  wept  over  a  dead 
?iare,  and  wrote  the  lines — 

"  1  wuulil  ni)t  count  upon  my  list  of  friends. 
A  man  who  wantonly  set  foot  upon  a  worm." 

But  his  pity  was  not  oxhatisted  by  such  manifesta- 
tions. He  admitli-d  man  atnong  the  objects  of  his  com- 
ji.issinn,  and  sounded  the  note  of  anti-slavery  long  be- 
fore the  abolition  of  the  trade  in  slaves: — 


iSS  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


"Fleecy  locks         lil.uk  <-<ini|)lexion 
Cannot  forfiit  tialiirc's  oi.iiiii: 
Skins  may  differ,  h.it  atTcclioii 
Dwtll>  ill  while  and  black  the  same." 

Apainst  jiartictilar  victs  there  are  numerous  tracts 
which  arc  lanicsi  ami  powerful.  In  some,  the  enormities 
of  infanticide  are  set  forth ;  some  denounce  the  folly  of 
jjaii'hliiij,' ;  others  dcil  in  scathinj;  terms  w  ith  lii  eiitii)iis 
|)ractict  s  of  every  descriiition ;  still  others  dissuaile  from 
opium-smokinp,  dnmkenness,  and  the  like. 

Traits  of  a  distitutly  relij^iotis  type  aio  lU'itlier  so 
ahundaiit,  nor  so  !iij;hiy  esteemeil.  as  those  that  aim  to 
mend  the  tnorals  of  mankind.  Yet  they  are  not  want- 
ing:— one  Mieei-  everv  day  with  little  |)ami>hlets  com- 
mending the  worship  of  pr.rticular  divinities.  Here  is 
one  that  points  out  the  way  to  ohtain  the  favor  of  Chanp 
Ilsien,  the  greait--!  of  i!u-  Taoisi  mtiii.  who  rewards  his 
worshippers  with  the  hlosir}^  of  otfspriiig.  Here  is  an- 
other which  consists  chieHy  of  ]  rayers  to  Kuan  Tin,  the 
goddess  of  mercy.  The  pravcis  are  in  Sanscrit,  and 
utterly  nnintellij^Hlile  to  those  \\iii>  use  tliem. 

()f  j)oleniics  there  are  very  few. — mdced  I  have  rmly 
seen  one  or  two  of  mo<lem  origin.  The  earlier  ages 
teemed  with  them  :  and  t!u  liti  rati.  hy  inserting  in  everv 
collection  of  ancient  essa>s.  llan  ^  u  s  ferocious  onslaught 
on  Buddhism,  seek  to  keep  alive  a  feeling  of  animosity 
aj^.iiiivt  ttu  Indian  cidd.  Time,  however,  is  a  threat 
pe.ice-niaker.  The  conthcting  elements,  that  once  threat- 
ened to  turn  this  celestial  empire  into  primeval  chaos. 
hav«  gradn.ilh  suh^i  li'd  itito  a  staMe  e(|uilil>riuin. 

Antagoni^ic  and  nuitually  destructive,  their  teachings 
may  he  found  mixed  together  in  most  of  the  tracts  of 
which  we  have  heen  ; nkin^  In  ime  of  them,  in  a 
conspict  1US  place,  at  tlie  head  of  a  list  of  good  actions, 


NATIVE  TRACTS  OF  CHINA 


stands  tlu'  iiijiinciion — A'ikj;.'-  Hsiiij^  San  Chiao,  "Spread 
far  and  witlf  ilu    I  lircc  KV  ii^ii  iiis." 

A  iittlc  trt-atiM  lull  uf  ikip  tiiouglil,  which  shows  to 
advantage  the  blending  of  the  three  creeds,  is  Ts'ai  Ken 
I  'lcit.  lis  author,  1  hiu^  ^' '"K  ^'i''^.  \\as  a  u'.nralist  uf  a 
high  ordrr,  Init  nothing  is  known  uf  him  except  that  he 
lived  about  three  centuries  ago. 

PhtIo.so|)hi  rs  tell  us  of  a  tinic,  liapiuly  far  in  tlie  future, 
when  earth  shall  no  more  be  the  scene  of  terrific  storms, 
— when  north  wind  and  south  wind  shall  cease  to  con- 
tend for  the  masicry,  because  the  atmosphere  no  longer 
receives  sufficient  heal  from  th'-  siui  to  disturb  its  re- 
pose. It  is  the  heat  of  conviction  that  engenders  contro- 
versy. Where  that  has  ceased,  is  there  not  reason  to 
suspect  that  faith  has  lost  its  vitality,  and  that  sincere 
convictions  no  longer  exist  ? 

In  ancient  Rome,  the  gcnls  of  vhe  eonciuered  nations 
came  troo|>itig  into  the  capita!;  anil  all  of  them,  in  the 
lapse  of  time,  were  seated  in  friendly  conclave  in  the 
pantheon  of  Agrippa.  They  were  at  peace,  because  they 
were  dead.  Lucian,  in  his  satirical  dialogues,  deals  with 
dead  gods  as  well  as  with  dead  men ;  but  those  dead 
gods  were  galvanized  into  life  by  the  contact  of  Chris- 
tianity. Christ  came  into  their  midst,  ami,  at  his  touch, 
their  dry  bones  began  to  shake,  and  they  rose  up  to  do 
battle  against  the  Lord  of  Life.  Histor>^  repeats  itself. 
What  we  have  seen  in  Rome,  is  now  takiii)^  place  in 
China.  The  calm  of  ages  is  disturl)ed,  and  the  heat  of 
controversy  begins  to  show  itself  anew ;  but  the  only 
pcleiuics  from  the  jiaqan  camp  are  those  in  which  the 
adhercms  of  the  l  liree  Religions  combine  in  vituperative 
attacks  on  that  arrogant  creed  which  claims  for  itself 
the  homage  of  the  wDrM. 

Inert  as  are  the  creeds  of  paganism,  in  comparison  with 


i6o  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


the  undyinp  tncr{;ics  of  our  Holy  Faith,  it  would  be 

wronji  In  i!H\i  tliat  they  an.-  lilhor  active  fi^r  evil,  or 
jK)\vcrli>.s  tor  nootl.  io  lliosc  wlio  liavc  not  the  sun, 
slar-liKlii  is  oftentimes  a  precious  guide. 

In  looking  over  a  vast  variety  of  native  tracts,  we  are 
>truck  liy  the  fact  that  authors  of  all  the  schools  agree 
m  scekiiig  to  fortify  their  moral  teachings  by  the  sanc- 
tions of  n  lit,Mnn.  l-'.ven  the  C't.nfucianiM>  ascrihc  to  their 
canonical  Uie  aiitliorits  ■>!  inspiration.    Chu  Fu- 

tze,  sceptical  a>  he  was  <  n  must  ^.ithjects,  admitted  the 
claim  of  the  Confucian  teacliings  to  a  suiH-rhuniaii  origin. 
I.altr  writers  nainrally  sought  to  invest  their  produc- 
tions with  the  sanctity  <Ierive.l  from  an  msi)ireil  source. 
The  two  other  cree<ls  jn-opled  the  lieavens  with  deified 
niort.ils.  W  ith  them  it  was  ea-y  to  hold  communication, 
and  from  them  oracular  responses  were  obtained.  If 
the  ilivinities  deigned  to  give  prescriptions  for  the  cure 
of  measles  or  t.K.thache.  why  n.  t  for  the  maladies  of  the 
human  mindr  I'he  medium  of  response  was  planchette, 
an  instrument  known  to  the  Chinese  a  thousand  years 
liefore  it  began  to  make  a  figure  in  F.urope.  I  have  my- 
self seen  effusions  in  faultless  verse,  fresh  from  the  pens 
of  deified  spirits. 

In  connecting  religion  with  morals,  these  writ.  r<i  agree 
with  us;  for  what  a  feeble  thing  would  be  a  moral  prop- 
aganda unaide<l  by  the  fervor  of  religious  faith! 

One  of  the  hterary  lights  of  tin-  I'.nglish  finnament 
defines  religion  a^  "  nior.thtv  tomhed  by  emotion."  The 
delinition  is  neither  1o>.;k.i1  nor  complete;  but  it  hits  in 
happy  phrase  one  feature  of  a  union  fortned  by  two  dis- 
tinct tliiims  Mi>ralitv.  to  borrow  the  imagery  of  .\ 
Hebrew  poet,  springs  up  out  "i  'he  earth,  and  religion 
looks  down  from  Heavtm.  Morahty  is  the  i^ody,  cold 
and  beautiful  until  religion,  which  is  its  soul,  enters  into 


NATIVE  TRACTS  OF  CHINA  i6i 


ii,  and  pivcs  it  life;  ur,  in  the  words  of  Mr.  Arnold, 

'  ii-uches  it  with  emotion. " 

The  love  of  God  is  religion ;  the  love  of  man.  morality. 
The  two  must  l)e  comiiimil.  in  order  to  jjivi-  the  highest 
effect  tti  an  enterf)rise  like  tiiat  of  our  Tract  Scx'ictics. 
1  lie  assertion  ma\  sound  stranjje,  but  it  is  true  neverliie- 
less.  tliat  morality  is  our  supreme  object.  If  tnen  were 
to  persist  in  the  dehasinj;  [)ractiees  inst'j)arable  from  hea- 
thenism, would  we  deem  ii  worth  while  to  substitute  the 
names  of  Jehovah  and  Jesus  for  those  of  Kuan  Ti  and 
ll'uldha? 

We  sliouhl  not  fail  to  recognize  how  much  has  been 
done  l)y  the  afjency  of  native  tracts  to  prepare  the  way 
for  the  tractariaii  cnisatle  in  which  we  are  nmv  em- 
barked. It  is  owing  to  them  that  our  efforts  in  this 
direction  meet  with  a  respectful  welcome.  Let  us,  on  our 
]Mit.  cultivate  a  sympathy  for  all  that  is  g(xid  in  native 
iMioks  and  native  mcthoils,  and  endeavor  to  learn  from 
them  something  that  may  enable  us  more  efficientlv  to 
carry  on  our  own  enterprise. 

That  which  we  may  study  with  most  advantage  is 
their  mode  of  communicating  instruction  on  religious  and 
moral  subjects.  No  missionary  sIk  mIiI  undertake  the 
cori!]'oviti<iii  of  a  liristi.in  tract,  without  having  first  made 
hiiuseli  acijuainted  wiiii  a  wide  range  of  native  tracts. 
Not  only  may  he  learn  from  them  how  to  treat  his  sub- 
ject in  a  si  vie  .it  mice  concise  and  lucid. — respectable  in 
the  eyes  of  the  learned,  yet  not  ai)ove  the  comprehension 
of  the  vulgar. — what  is  more,  he  may  learn  frtMn  them 
the  spiritual  w.ints  of  the  audience  wh<»n  he  pn^Mses  to 
instruct  and  relieve. 

A  weakness  of  tfie  native  tract  lies  in  the  fact  that, 
for  the  most  part,  elii^ant  a'^  it  may  he,  it  contains  noth- 
ing but  whr/c  cverylxjdy  knows.   We,  in  the  preparation 


i6a  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

of  our  tracts,  can  draw  en  nsoiinos  that  lie  licyon(!  tlio 
reach  of  native  authois.  In  aililition  tu  tlie  ineslimat)le 
treasures  of  Revealed  Truth,  we  have  Geopi^phy,  His- 
tory, Astronomy,  f'hysics,  to  communicate,—  trnt  to  sjjcak 
of  our  inijirovt  d  systems  of  Mental  and  Moral  Philosophy. 

These  sciences  are  not  only  powerful  for  the  over- 
throw of  superstition, — they  are  essential  to  the  under- 
staniliii;:  of  rdi^^iniis  truth,  h'.very  new  tract  ouRht  to 
contain  m(jrc  or  less  on  tluse  subjects;  and  some  tracts 
should  he  entirely  devoted  to  them,  and  to  the  religious 
api^irations  of  which  they  ;irc  so  readily  su<coptihle. 
Would  it  not  be  well  for  our  Tract  Societies  to  prepare 
ii  series — not  of  text-books,  for  that  task  has  been  under- 
taken by  another  association— hut  of  jirinier'^,  which, 
along  with  religious  truth,  shall  impart  the  elements  of 
science?  By  acting  on  this  principle,  our  publications 
will  be  made  in  the  highest  sen-c  an  e<hKatinii;il  ap;mcy. 
They  will  command  the  respect  of  the  better  classes, 
and  not  only  win  them  away  from  grovelling  supersti- 
tions, but  lead  hit^'h  ati<l  low  away  from  their  imperfect 
lights  to  ilim  who  is  the  Light  of  the  World. 


BOOK  III 

Religion  and  Philosophy  of  the 
Chinese 


XI 


THE  SAN  CHIAO,  OR  THREE  RELIGIONS  OF  CHINA 

THE  religious  experience  of  the  Chinese  is  worthy 
uf  attc'inivi-  study,  lictaclicd  at  an  larly  ptTioil 
from  till-  paiciit  stutk,  and  lor  thuiihund!.  ui 
years  holding  but  Ifttle  intercourse  with  other  branches 
of  the  human  family  we  are  alile  tu  ascertain  witli  a 
good  degree  of  precision  those  ideas  which  coiisiitutcd 
their  original  inheritance,  and  to  trace  in  history  the 
development  or  corruption  of  their  primitive  htliofs. 
Midway  in  their  luii}^  career,  they  imported  from  India 
an  exotic  system,  completing  the  triad  of  their  authorized 
creeds. 

In  tlu  ii  experience  each  of  the  leading  systcins  has  been 
fairly  tested.  1  he  an  na  has  heen  large  enough,  and  the 
iliiration  of  the  experiment  long  enough,  to  admit  of  each 
uorKiii-  .  11!  it-  fi.i!l  results.  These  experiments  are  of 
the  greater  value,  because  they  have  been  wrought  out 
in  thf"  midst  of  a  highly  organized  society,  and  in  ctmnec- 
tion  with  a  hitrh  dei;ree  of  inti'lectiial  culture. 

In  views  and  practices,  the  Chinese  of  to-day  are  poly- 
theistic and  idolatrous.  The  evidence  of  this  strikes  the 
;i!i,niion  of  the  voyat^er  on  •  \  cry  hand.  In  the  sanpaii 
that  carries  him  to  the  shore,  he  discovers  a  small  shrine 
which  contains  an  image  of  the  river-god,  the  god  of 
wealth,  or  Knan  \\n  (the  y:o<ldess  of  mercy).  His  eye 
is  charmed  hy  the  i>iclures(|ueness  of  pagodas  perched  on 
mountain-crags,  and  monasteries  nestling  in  sequestered 
dells;  and,  on  entering  even  a  small  town,  he  is  surprised 
at  the  extent,  if  not  the  magnificence,  of  temples  erected 

165 


THE  LORE  OK  CAT  HAY 


to  ChViip  Hiian)^,  t!  "  ^ity  ilt  fcndor.  am!  Wen  (  li  aiij;, 
the  patron  of  letters.  lK-ap!»  oi  gilt  paper  .ire  ci>ns  uned 
in  the  streets,  accompanied  by  volleys  of  fire  crackers. 
Honzes,  mnilulatiiij;  tlii  ii  voices  by  the  sound  of  a  wooden 
rattle,  fill  the  air  with  their  melancholy  ciiant;  ami  prf>- 
cessions  wind  through  narrow  lanes,  bearing  on  iheir 
shoulders  a  silver  effigy  of  the  "  dragon  king,"  the  god 
of  rain. 

These  tcmiiK-s,  imagi  and  symbols,  he  is  informed, 
all  heldHfj  to  San  C/iuio  ( three  reiif^ions).  three  are 

equally  idolatr  w,  and  he  incpiires  in  v  iin  for  any  in- 
fluential native  sect,  wliah.  more  enlij;liteneil  or  philo- 
.sophical  than  the  rest,  raises  a  protest  against  the  prevail- 
ing superstition.  \ct.  on  ac(|iiirinp  tin  lan(::\iat;e  and 
studying;  the  popular  superstitions  in  their  myriad  fan- 
tastic shapes,  he  begins  to  discover  traces  of  a  religious 
sentiment,  deep  and  real,  which  is  not  conmvted  with  any 
t)f  the  objects  of  popular  worshii) — a  veneration  for  Tien, 
or  Heaven,  and  a  belief  that  in  the  visible  heavens  there 
resides  some  vatrne  power  who  provides  for  the  wants  of 
men,  and  rewards  them  acconhng  to  their  deeds. 

Personified  as  Lao  T'ien  Yeh— not  Hcavenlv  Father,  as 
it  i  \|>rt^M  j  tlie  (  liri^tian's  <-MiK-ei)tion  of  cniiilinvd  tender- 
ness and  majesty,  hut  hlerally  "Old  Father  Heaven." 
much  as  we  say  "  Old  Father  Time  "—or  desij,mate<I  by 
a  lnm,Iri.d  other  appellation-,  this  an^just  but  unknown 
Ueiuj,',  thouKli  universally  a  knowled^jed,  is  invoked  or 
worshippi'd  only  to  a  very  limited  extent.  .Some,  at  the 
close  nf  ti'c  \ear,  present  a  thank-offering  to  the  Great 
Power  v.ho  has  controlled  tho  course  of  its  events;  others 
bum  a  stick  of  incense  every  evening  under  the  open  sky; 
and  in  the  marriage  ceremony  all  classes  bow  down  before 
T'ien  .T^  the  first  of  the  five  objects  of  veneration.* 

*  The  otlicr  four  are  i\k  earth,  the  prince,  parents,  and  teachers. 


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THREE  RELIGIONS  OF  CHINA  167 


When  taxed  with  ingratitude  in  neglecting  to  honor 
that  Being  on  whom  they  depend  for  existence,  the 
Chinese  uniformly  reply,  "  It  is  not  ingratitude,  but  rev- 
erence, that  prevents  our  worship.  He  is  too  great  for  us 
to  worship.  None  but  t!io  Emperor  is  worthy  to  lay  an 
offering  on  the  altar  of  Heaven."  In  conformity  with 
this  sentiment,  the  Emperor,  as  the  high  priest  and  medi- 
ator of  his  people,  celebrates  in  Peking  the  worship  of 
Heaven  with  imposing  ceremonies. 

Within  the  gates  of  the  southern  division  of  the  capi- 
tal, and  surrounded  hy  a  sacred  grove  so  extensive  that 
the  silence  of  its  deep  shades  is  never  broken  by  the 
noises  of  the  busy  world,  stands  the  Temple  of  Heaven. 
It  consists  of  a  single  tower,  whose  tiling  of  resplendent 
azure  is  intended  to  represent  the  form  and  color  of  the 
aerial  vault.  It  contains  no  image,  and  the  solemn  rites 
are  not  performed  within  the  tower;  but,  on  a  marble 
altar  whii'h  stands  before  it,  a  bullock  is  offered  once  a 
year  as  a  burnt-sacrifice,  while  the  master  of  the  Empire 
prostrates  himself  in  adoration  of  the  Spirit  of  the  Uni- 
verse.* 

This  is  the  high-place  of  Chinese  devotion;  and  the 
thoughtful  visitor  feels  that  he  ought  to  tread  its  courts 
with  unsandalled  fcet.f  For  no  vulgar  idolatry  has  en- 
tered here :  this  mountain-top  still  stands  above  the  waves 
of  corruption,  and  on  this  solitary  altar  there  still  rests 

♦Another  tower  of  similar  structure  but  larger  dimensions 

stands  in  a  separate  enclijsure  as  a  kind  of  vestibule  to  the  more 
sacred  place,  and  here  it  is  that  the  Emperor  prays  for  "  fruitful 

seasons." 

\  Dr.  Legge,  the  distinguished,  translator  of  the  Chinese  clas- 
sics, visiting  Peking  some  years  after  this  was -written,  actually 
"  put  his  shoes  from  off  his  feet "  before  ascending  the  steps  of 
the  great  altar.  Yet  in  igoo  this  sacred  spot  was  converted  into 
»  barracks  for  British  troops! 


i68 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


a  faint  ray  of  tlie  primeval  faith.  The  lalilct  wliich  rep- 
resent- the  invisible  Deity  is  inscribed  with  the  name  of 
Sliiing  ri.  the  Supreme  Ruler;  and  as  we  contemplate  the 
Majesty  of  the  Empire  prostrate  before  it.  wliile  the 
smoke  ascends  from  his  Inirning  sacrifice,  our  thoughts 
are  irresistil)iy  carried  back  to  the  time  when  the 
King  of  Salem  officiated  as  "  Priest  of  the  Most  High 
God." 

The  writings  and  the  institutions  of  the  Chinese  are 
not,  like  those  of  the  Hindus  and  the  Hebrews,  pervaded 
with  the  idea  of  fiod.  It  is,  nevertlicless,  expressed  in 
their  ancient  books  with  so  much  clearness  as  to  make 
us  wonder  and  lament  that  it  has  left  so  faint  an  impres- 
sion on  the  national  mind. 

In  their  books  of  History-  it  is  recorded  that  music  was 
invented  for  the  praise  of  Shang  Ti.  Rival  claimants  for 
the  throne  appeal  to  tlie  judqnieiit  of  .Sli.mt^  Ti.  I  le  is  the 
arbiter  of  nations,  and,  while  actuated  by  benevolence,  is 
yet  capable  of  being  provoked  to  wrath  by  the  iniquities  of 
men.  In  the  Book  of  Chanj^cs  he  is  represented  as  restor- 
ing life  to  torpid  nature  on  tlie  return  of  spring.  In  the 
Book-  of  Rites  it  is  said  iliat  the  ancients  "  prayed  for  grain 
to  Shang  Ti,"  and  presented  in  ut'tVrini^  a  l)tillock,  which 
must  be  without  lileniish,  and  stall-l'ed  for  tliree  months 
beiore  the  day  of  sacrifice.  In  the  Book  of  Odes,  mostly 
composed  from  eight  hundred  to  a  thousand  years  before 
the  Christian  era.  and  coiitaininij  fragments  of  still 
higher  antiquity,  Shang  Ti  is  represented  as  seated  on  a 
lofty  throne,  while  the  spirits  of  the  good  "  walk  up  and 
down  on  his  right  and  left." 

In  none  of  these  writings  is  Shang  Ti  clothed  in  the 
human  form  or  debased  by  human  passion  like  the  Zeus 
of  the  Creek.  Tlure  i--  in  tliem  even  less  of  anthropo- 
morphism than  we  find  in  the  representations  of  Jehovah 


THREE  RELIGIONS  OF  CHINA  169 


in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  Tlie  nearest  approach  to  ex- 
hibiting him  in  the  human  form  is  the  ascri- tion  to 

Shang  Ti  of  a  "  hup^e  footprint,"  prohalily  an  iiii])rossion 
on  some  mass  of  rock.  Educated  Chinese,  on  embracing 
Chrirtianity,  assert  that  the  Shang  Ti  of  their  fathers  was 
identical  with  tlic  T'ion  Chu,  the  Lord  of  Heaven,  whom 
they  are  taught  to  worship.  Paul  Hsiu,  a  member  of  the 
Hanlin  Academy,  and  cabinet  minister  under  the  Ming 
dynasty,  makes  this  assertion  in  an  eloquent  apology  ad- 
dressed to  the  throne  in  behalf  of  his  new  faith  and  its 
teachers. 

There  is  no  need  of  an  cxtcnflcd  arg-ument,  to  establish 
the  fact  that  the  early  Chinese  were  by  no  means  desti- 
tute of  the  knowledge  of  God.  They  did  not,  indeed, 
know  him  as  the  Creator,  but  they  recognized  him  as  su- 
preme in  providence,  and  without  beginning  or  end. 

Whence  came  this  conception  ?  Was  it  the  mn  jre  re- 
sult of  ages  of  speculation,  or  was  it  brought  down  from 
remote  antiquity  on  the  stream  of  patriarchal  tradition? 
The  latter,  we  think,  is  the  only  probable  hypothesis. 
In  the  earlier  books  of  the  Chinese  there  is  no  trace  of 
speculative  inquiry.  They  raise  no  question  as  to  the  na- 
ture of  Shang  Ti.  or  the  grounds  of  their  faith  in  such  a 
being,  but  in  their  first  pages  allude  to  him  as  already 
well  known,  and  speak  of  bumt-offcrings  made  to  him 
on  mountain-tops  as  an  established  rite.  Indeed,  the  idea 
of  Shang  Ti,  when  it  first  meets  us,  is  not  in  the  process 
of  development,  but  already  in  the  first  stages  of  decay. 
Tlie  beginnings  of  that  idolatry  by  which  it  was  subse- 
quently almost  obliterated  are  distinctly  traceable.  The 
heavenly  bodies,  the  spirits  of  the  hills  and  rivers,  and 
even  the  spirits  of  deceased  men,  were  admitted  to  a 
share  in  the  divine  honors  of  Shang  Ti.  The  religious 
sentiment  was  frittered  away  by  being  directed  to  a  mul* 


170  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

tiplicity  of  objects,  and  the  popular  mind  seemed  to  take 
refuge  among  the  creatures  of  its  own  fancy,  as  Adam 
did  amidst  the  trees  of  the  Garden,  from  t^ie  terrible  idea 
of  a  holy  God. 

The  worship  of  the  Supreme  Ruler,  grand  as  it  is,  is 
in  the  present  day  like  a  ray  of  the  sun  failing  upon  an 
iceberg,  so  far  as  its  iunuince  on  the  public  mind  is  con- 
cerned. It  is  limited  to  the  emperor  and  to  a  few  re- 
markable and  august  manifestnior-  of  pul'lic  i  itual ;  but 
you  do  not  find  it  in  the  houseliol.l.  You  do  not  find  U 
on  the  lips  of  the  people,  ^'ou  do  not  find  that  God  in 
that  form  has  taken  up  his  aliode  with  men.  He  is  still 
far  remote,  on  the  summit  of  an  icy  Olympus,  as  it  were, 
although  to  a  certain  extent  dimly  perceived  by  the  mind 
of  the  Oiinese  nation. 

In  order  to  understand  the  mutual  relations  of  these 
three  systems— in  other  words,  to  understand  the  relig- 
ious aspects  of  China  at  the  present  day— it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  give  separate  attention  to  the  rise  and  progress 
of  each.   We  begin  with  Confucianism. 

The  Confucian  system  did  not  originate  with  Con- 
fucius. He  t(xik  the  records  of  remote  antiquity  and 
sifted  them,  in  such  wise,  however,  as  to  exert  in  a  most 
effective  manner  the  influence  of  an  editor,  giving  to  the 
readers  of  all  succeeding  ages  only  thp'  which  he  wished 
to  produce  its  cflFect  on  the  national  mind.  We  conse- 
quently date  Confucianism  from  the  beginning  of  his 
records,— from  the  time  of  Yao  and  Shun,  l  is  favorite 
models  of  virtue,— twenty-two  centuries  ijefore  the 
Christian  era. 

There  are  two  classes  of  great  men  who  leave  their 

mark  on  the  confliti-.n  of  their  species— those  who  change 
the  course  of  liisf^ry  without  any  far-reaching  purpose, 
much  as  a  falling  cliff  changes  the  direction  of  a  stream; 


THREE  RELIGIONS  OF  CHINA  171 

and  those,  again,  who,  like  skilful  engineers,  excavate  a 
channel  for  the  thought  of  future  generations.  Pre- 
eminent anion;,'  tiic  latter  stands  the  name  of  Confucius. 
Honored  during  his  lifetime  to  such  a  degree  that  the 
princes  of  several  states  lamented  his  decease  like  that  of 
a  father,  his  influence  has  deepened  witli  time  and  ex- 
tended with  the  swelling  multitudes  of  his  people.  Bud- 
dhism and  Taoism  have  both  fallen  into  a  state  of  irre- 
trievable decay,  but  the  influence  and  the  memory  of  Con- 
fucius continue  as  ^reen  as  the  cypresses  tliat  shade  his 
tomb.  After  the  lapse  of  three  and  twenty  centuries,  he 
has  a  temple  in  every  city,  and  an  effigy  in  every  school- 
room. He  is  venerated  as  the  fountain  of  wisdom  hy  all 
the  votaries  of  letters,  and  worshipped  by  the  mandarins 
of  the  realm  as  the  author  of  their  civil  polity.  The  es- 
timation in  which  his  teachings  continue  to  he  held  is  well 
exhibited  in  the  reply  which  the  people  of  Shantung,  his 
native  province,  gave  to  a  missionary  who,  some  fifty 
years  ago,  oflFered  them  Cliristian  hooks :  "  We  have 
seen  your  books,"  said  they,  "  and  neither  desire  nor  ap- 
prove them.  The  instructions  of  our  Sage  are  sufficient 
for  us,  and  they  are  superior  to  any  foreign  doctrines  that 
you  can  bring  us."  * 

Bom  B.  c.  551,  and  endowed  with  uncommon  talents, 
Confucius  was  far  from  relying  on  the  fertility  of  his 
own  g;enius.  "  Reading  without  thought  is  fruitless,  and 
thought  without  reading  dangerous,"  is  a  maxim  which 
he  taught  his  disciples,  and  one  which  he  had  doubtless 
followed  in  the  formation  of  his  own  mind.  China  al- 
ready possessed  accumulated  treasures  of  literature  and 
hist  ,ry.  With  these  materials  he  stored  his  me.  jry,  and 

*  Since  that  date  a  change  h.i-.  ciiiiu-  over  the  people  of  Snan^ 
tung.  In  no  other  province  has  Christianity  met  with  so  ready  a 
reception. 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


by  the  aid  of  rcllection  digested  thcin  into  a  system  for 
the  use  of  posterity. 

Filled  with  eiithusias'ii  by  tiic  study  of  the  ancients,  and 
mourning  over  the  iiegeneracy  of  his  own  times,  he  en- 
tered at  an  early  age  on  the  vocation  of  reformer,  fic 
at  first  sought  to  effect  lii'-  ohjecls  by  obtainiiif  vil  office 
and  setting  an  example  of  good  governmer  well  as 
by  giving  instniction  to  those  who  l»ecame  disciples. 
At  tlie  age  of  fifty-five  he  was  ailvanced  to  the  premier- 
ship of  his  native  State ;  and  in  a  few  months  the  improve- 
ment in  the  public  morals  was  manifest.  Valuables 
might  '  ■  exposed  in  tlie  street  willmnt  being  stolen,  and 
shephcids  abandoned  the  practice  of  filling  their  sheep 
with  water  before  leading  tliem  to  market. 

A  singular  circumstance  led  hiin  to  renounce  i)olitical 
life.  The  little  kingdom  of  Lu  grew  apace  in  wealth  and 
prosperity ;  and  the  jirince  cf  a  rival  State,  in  order  to 
prevent  its  acquiring  an  ascendency  in  the  politics  of  the 
Empire,  felt  it  necessary  to  counteract  the  influence  of 
the  wise  legislator.  Resorting  to  a  stratagem  similar  to 
that  which  Louis  XIV.  employed  with  Qiarles  II.,  he 
sent  instead  of  brave  generals  or  astute  statesmen,  a  band 
of  beautiful  girls  who  were  skilled  in  music  and  dancing. 
The  prince  of  Lu,  young  and  amorous,  was  caught  in  the 
snare,  and,  giving  the  rein  to  jileasure.  abandoned  all  the 
schemes  of  reform  with  which  he  had  been  inspired  by 
the  counsels  of  the  Sage.  Disappointed  and  disgusted, 
Confucius  retired  into  private  life. 

Thwarted,  as  he  had  often  been,  by  royal  pride  and 
official  jealousy,  he  henceforth  endeavored  to  attain  his 
ends  b\  a  less  direct  but  more  certain  method.  He  de- 
voted himself  more  than  ever  to  the  instruction  of  youth, 
and  to  the  collection  of  those  monuments  of  ancient  wis- 
dom, which  form  the  basis  of  his  teaching.    His  fame 


THREE  RELIGIONS  OF  CHINA 


attracted  young  men  of  promise  from  all  tiic  surrounding 
principalities.  No  fewer  than  three  thousand  received 
Ills  instructions,  among  whom  five  hundred  became  dis- 
tinguished mandarins,  and  seventy-two  of  them  arc  en- 
rolled on  the  list  of  the  sages  of  the  Empire.  Through 
these  and  the  l)ooks  which  he  edited  subsequently  to  this 
period,  there  can  he  no  doulit  that  he  exerted  a  greater 
influence  on  the  destinies  of  tlie  Empire  than  he  could 
have  done  had  he  been  seated  on  the  Imperial  throne. 
He  won  for  himself  the  title  of  Sn  Wang,  "  the  un- 
sceptrcd  monarch,"  whose  intellectual  sway  is  acknowl- 
edged by  all  ages.* 

Confucius  understood  the  power  of  proverhs  and.  ii 
corporating  into  his  system  such  as  met  his  approval,  ht 
cast  his  own  teachings  in  the  same  mould.  His  speeches 
are  laconic  and  oracular,  and  he  has  transmitted  to  pos- 
terity a  body  of  political  ethics  expressed  in  formulae  so 
brief  and  comprehensive  that  it  may  easily  be  retained  in 
the  wjakest  memory.  Thus,  cli.in  ch\n,  fit  /cr,  //(  fit, 
hsittng  ti,  p'cng  yu  are  ten  syllables  which  every  hoy  in 
C  .  !»t  his  tongue's  end.    They  contain  the  entire 

II.  jf  the  social  fabric — the  "five  relations"  of 

s^.  i  '  nnd  subject,  parent  and  child,  husband  and 
wife,  Diotiicr  and  brother,  friend  and  friend,  which,  ac- 
cording to  the  Chinese,  comprehend  the  whole  duty  of 
man  as  a  social  being.  The  five  cardinal  virtues — benevo- 
lence, justice,  order,  prudence,  and  fidelity — so  essen- 
tial to  the  well-being  of  society,  Confucius  inculcated  rn 
the  five  syllables  jcn,  i,  Ii.  chili,  tisin. 

The  following  sentences,  taken  from  his  miscellaneous 
discourses,  may  serve  as  illustrations  of  both  the  style 
and  the  matter  of  his  teaching: 

*  For  an  account  of  his  family  see  Note  II.  at  the  end  of  this 
chapter. 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


"  Good  government  cunsihls  in  making  the  prince  a 
prince,  the  suliject  a  subject,  the  parent  a  parent,  and  the 
child  a  child." 

"  Beware  of  doing  to  another  wlial  yuu  would  not  that 
others  should  do  to  you." 

"  He  that  is  not  offended  at  being  misunderstood  is  a 
superior  man." 

••  llavi'  no  friend  who  is  inferior  to  yourself  in  virtue." 

"  Be  not  afraid  to  correct  a  fault.  He  that  knows  the 
right  and  fears  to  do  it  is  noi  a  I)rave  man." 

"  If  you  guide  tiie  people  liy  laws,  and  enforce  the  laws 
by  punishment,  they  will  lose  the  sense  ol  'lame  and  seek 
to  evade  tliein  ;  Imt  if  you  ^uide  them  In  a  virtuous  ex- 
ample, and  ditfuse  among  tlicm  a  love  of  order,  they  will 
be  ashamed  to  transgress." 

"  To  know  what  we  know,  and  what  we  do  not  know, 
is  knowledge." 

"  We  know  not  life,  how  can  we  know  death?  " 
•  The  filial  son  is  one  who  gi/es  his  paretits  no  anxiety 
but  for  his  health." 

Filial  piety.  Confucius  taught,  is  not  merely  a  domestic 
virtue,  but  liitTuses  its  influence  thrnu},'li  all  the  actions 
of  life.  A  son  who  disgraces  his  parents  in  any  way  is 
unfilial ;  one  who  maltreats  a  brother  or  a  relative,  forget- 
ful of  the  bonds  of  a  common  parentage,  is  unfilial.  This 
powerful  motive  is  thus  rendered  expansive  in  its  applica- 
tion, like  piety  to  God  in  the  Christian  system,  for  which, 
indeed,  it  serves  as  a  partial  substitute.  It  is  beautifully 
elaborated  in  the  Hsiao  Ching,  the  most  popular  of  the 
Thirteen  Classics. 

Virtue,  Confucius  taught  with  Aristotle,  is  the  mean 
between  two  vices,  and  this  tbeorv  is  develnped  by  his 
grandson  in  the  Cliuug  Vung,  the  sublimest  of  the  sacred 
books. 


THREE  RELIGIONS  OF  CHINA  175 


The  secret  of  good  government,  he  taught,  consist!  in 

tlif  cultiv.itioii  of  [nTsuiial  viiiii','  on  the  part  of  rulers; 
and  the  cuiincctiun  between  private  morals  and  natitmal 
politics  is  well  set  forth  in  the  Ta  Hsiieh,  or  Great  Study. 

This  brief  tractate  is  tin-  only  formal  composition,  with 
the  cxct  '  tion  of  an  outline  uf  history,  whicli  the  Great 
Sape  pi:  fortli  as  ihc  product  of  liis  own  pen.  "  I  am 
an  editor,  and  not  an  author,"  is  the  modest  account 
uliicli  hi  L,MV(S  of  himsilf,  ;iii<i  it  is  mainly  to  his  lahors 
in  this  de;iartmenl  that  China  is  indebted  lor  her  knowl- 
edge of  antecedent  antiquity. 

The  spirit  in  which  he  discharged  this  double  duty  to 
the  past  and  future  may  be  inferred  from  the  impressive 
ceremony  with  which  he  concluded  his  great  task.  As- 
sembliu};  his  disciples,  he  led  them  to  the  summit  of  a 
neighboring  hill,  where  sacrifices  were  usually  offered. 
Here  he  erected  an  altar,  and  placing  on  it  an  edition  of 
the  sacred  books  which  he  had  just  completed,  the  gray- 
haired  philosopher,  now  seventy  years  of  age,  fell  on  his 
knees,  devoutly  returned  thanks  for  having  had  life  and 
strength  granted  him  to  accomplish  that  laborious  under- 
taking, at  the  same  time  imploring  that  the  benefit  his 
countrymen  would  receive  from  it  might  not  be  small. 
"  Chinese  jjicttire; ,"  says  Pauthier,  "  represent  the  Sage 
in  the  attitude  of  supplication,  and  a  beam  of  light  or  a 
rainbow  descending  on  the  sacred  volumes,  while  his 
disci])lcs  ..land  around  him  in  admiring  wonder."  * 

Thales  expired  about  the  time  Confucius  drew  his  in- 
fant breath,  and  Pythagoras  was  his  contemporary;  but 
the  only  names  among  the  Greeks  which  admit  of  com- 
parison with  that  of  Confucius  are  Socrates  and  Aristotle, 
the  former  of  whom  revolutionized  the  piiilosophy  of 

*  Since  reading  this  p.issagc  in  Pauthier,  I  have  myself  seen 
this  picture  in  a  native  pictorial  biography  o{  Coniucius. 


176  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

Greece,  and  the  latter  ruled  the  dialectics  of  medieval 

I  .iiropc.  Without  thf  discursivf  cliKivutnc  of  tin-  one  or 
the  logical  acumen  of  the  other,  Confucius  surpassed 
tliem  both  in  practical  w'sdom,  and  exceed*  them  im- 
measurably in  the  depth,  extent,  and  permanence  of  his 

influence. 

it  is  not  suri)ri>inp  that  when  missionaries  attempt  to 
direct  their  attention  to  the  Saviour,  the  Chinese  point  to 
Confncitis  and  cliallrnpe  r  nparison;  nor  tliat  they 
should  soinctinics  fail  to  he  salisticd  with  the  arguments 
employed  to  establish  the  superiority  of  Jesus  Christ.  But 
t'lo  thought ful  Christian  who  has  studied  the  canonical 
lKX)ks  of  China  can  liardly  return  to  the  perusal  of  the 
New  Testament  without  a  deeper  conviction  of  its  divine 
autlioritv.  In  the  Confucian  classics  he  detects  none  of 
that  impurity  which  defiles  the  pages  of  Greek  and  Roman 
authors,  and  none  of  that  monstrous  mythology  which 
constitutes  so  lar^c  a  portion  of  the  sacred  books  of  the 
Hindoos,  but  he  discovers  defects  enough  to  make  him 
turn  with  gratitude  to  the  revelations  of  a  "Greater 
Teacher." 

Disgusted  at  the  superstitions  of  the  vulgar,  and  de- 
sirous of  guarding  his  followers  against  similar  excesses, 

Confucius  led  tluin  into  the  opposite  extreme  of  sccjiti- 
cism.  Me  iRnorod.  if  he  did  not  deny,  those  cardinal  doc- 
trines of  all  religion,  the  iinmortality  of  the  soul,  and  the 
personal  existence  of  God,  both  of  which  were  currently 
received  m  his  day.  In  place  of  Shang  Ti  (Supretne 
Ruler),  the  name  under  which  the  God  of  Nature  had 
been  worshipped  in  earlier  ages,  he  made  use  of  the  vague 
appellation  T'icu  (Heaven);  thus  openinf;  the  way,  on 
the  one  hand,  for  that  atheism  with  which  their  modem 
philosophy  is  so  deeply  infected,  and,  on  the  other,  for 
that  idolatry  which  nothing  but  the  doctrine  of  a  personal 


THREE  RELIGIONS  OF  CHINA 


God  can  cfftoiually  counteract.  When  his  pupils  pr;>- 
poscd  iiii|tiirK>  iispivtiii^,'  a  futurt'  staU',  lie  cillur  dis- 
couraged iIkiii  nr  answered  aiiihi^Muiusl) ,  and  llius  de- 
prived his  own  jm  oipts  of  the  >iipp(irl  tliey  iiiiylil  have 
derived  from  ilie  sanctions  of  a  coming  rctrilnuion.  Thus 
in  a  remarkable  discourse  repurted  in  tin-  Chui  )  ;< — a  col- 
lection the  authority  of  which  is  not,  however,  altove  sus- 
picion—he  sa\s,  •'  If  I  should  say  the  soul  survives  the 
Ixidy.  1  fear  tlie  hlial  w  ttld  nry;li(.t  tlkir  livinjj  parents 
in  their  zeal  tu  serve  their  devased  ancestors.  If,  on  the 
contrary,  I  should  say  the  M\i\  docs  not  survive,  I  fear 
list  the  iiiitilial  -h,,ii'.l  thmw  away  the  bodies  of  their 
parents  and  leave  tlieni  unburied." 

We  may  add  that,  while  his  writings  abound  in  the 
praises  of  virtue,  iKJt  a  line  can  l)o  found  inculcating  the 
pursuit  of  truth.  Expediency,  not  truth,  is  the  goal  of 
his  system.  Contrast  with  this  the  Gospel  of  Christ, 
which  pronounces  him  the  only  freeman  w  iioin  the  "  truth 
makes  free,"  and  promises  to  his  followers  "  the  Spirit 
of  Truth  "  as  his  richest  legacy. 

The  sty'e  (if  t  onfucius  was  an  ipse-dixit  dogmatism, 
and  it  has  left  its  impress  on  the  unreasoning  habit  of  the 
Chinese  mind.  Jesus  Christ  appealed  to  evidoncr  avid 
challenged  inquiry,  and  this  characteristic  of  our  i  -lii^ion 
has  shown  itself  in  the  mental  develn:  ,  nt  of  C'li  '  an 
nations.  Nor  is  the  contrast  less  striking  .  .  another  point. 
Illitis  dicta,  httjxts  facia  laudantur,  to  borrow  the  words 
of  Cicero,  in  compariiit,'  ("ato  with  Socrates.  Confucius 
selected  ilisciples  who  should  be  the  depositaries  of  his 
teachings ;  Christ  chose  apostles  who  should  be  witnesses 
of  his  actions.  Confucius  died  lanientint,'  that  tlio  edifice 
he  had  labored  so  long  to  erect  was  crumbling  to  ruin. 
Christ's  death  was  the  crowning  act  of  his  life;  and  his 
last  words,  "  It  is  finished." 


178  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


it  was  a  pliilosophy,  not  a  religion,  that  Confucius 
aimed  to  propagate.    "  Our  Ma>n  r,"  s;i>  his  disciples, 

"  spake  little  concerning;  the  jmhIs."  lie  pieterreil  to  con- 
tine  his  teachings  to  the  mure  langihle  realities  of  human 
life ;  but  so  far  from  setting  liimself  to  reform  the  vulgar 
superstition,  he  CDnforined  to  its  silly  ceremonies  and  en- 
joined the  same  course  e)n  his  disciples.  "  Treat  the  gods 
with  respect."  he  said  to  them,  but  he  added,  in  terms 
which  leave  no  anihiRuity  in  the  meaning  of  the  precept, 
"  keep  them  at  a  di.,tance,"  or,  rather,  '•  keep  out  of  their 
way."  A  cold  sneer  was  not  sufficient  to  wither  or  eradi- 
cate the  exi.sting  idolatry,  ;iii<l  the  teachings  of  0>nl'uciiis 
gave  authority  and  prevalence  to  many  idolatrous  usages 
which  were  only  jiartially  current  before  his  day. 

Confucianism  now  stands  forth  as  the  leailing  religion 
of  the  F.mpire.  Its  objects  of  worship  are  of  three  classes 
— the  powers  of  nature .  ancestors,  and  heroes.  Originally 
recognizing  the  existence  of  a  Sui)reine  personal  Deity, 
it  has  degenerated  into  a  pantheistic  medley,  and  renders 
worship  to  an  impe'sonal  iiniiiu  iiiniiJi  under  the  leading 
forms  of  visible  nature.  Besides  the  concrete  universe, 
separate  honors  are  itaid  to  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars, 
mountains,  rivers,  and  lakes. 

Of  all  their  religious  observances,  the  worship  of  an- 
cestors is  that  which  the  Chinese  regard  as  the  most 
sacred.  .\s  .Kneas  ohtoined  the  name  ol  ■"  I'imis"  in 
honor  of  his  filial  devotion,  so  the  Chinese  idea  of  piety 
rises  no  higher.  The  I'niperor,  according  to  the  Confu- 
cian school,  may  worship  the  Spirit  of  the  Cniver.se,  but 
for  his  subjects  it  is  sufficient  that  each  present  of?erjngs 
to  the  spirits  of  bis  own  ancestors.  These  rites  are  per- 
formeil  either  at  the'  family  tombs  l,:  'n  the  family  temple, 
where  wooden  tablets,  inscribed  with  their  names,  are 
preserved  as  sacred  to  the  memory  of  the  deceased,  and 


THREE  RELIGIONS  OF  CHINA 


worshippctl  precisely  in  the  same  manner  as  are  the 

popular  ido's. 

The  class  of  deified  heroes  comprehends  illustrious 
sases.  eminent  sovereigns,  faithful  statesmen,  valiant 
warricfs.  filial  sons,  and  public  benefactors— Confucius 
himself  occupying  the  first  place,  and  constituting,  as  the 
Chinese  say.  "  one  of  a  trinity  with  Heaven  and  Earth." 

Like  Confucianism.  Taoism  is  indigenous  to  China, 
and.  coi'v.il  with  the  former  in  its  origin,  it  was  also  co- 
heir to  the  mixed  inheritance  of  good  and  evil  contained 
in  the  more  ancient  creeds.  The  Taoists  derive  their 
name  from  tud.  reason,  and  call  themselves  Rationalists; 
hut,  with  a  marvelous  show  of  profundity,  nothing  can 
be  more  irrational  than  their  doctrine  and  practice.  Their 
founder,  Li  Erli,  appears  to  have  jiossessed  a  ;xrvnt.  mind, 
and  to  have  caught  glimpses  of  several  sublime  truths ; 
but  he  has  been  sadly  misrepresented  by  his  degenerate 
followers.  He  lived  in  the  sixtli  century  h.  t.,  and  was 
contemporary  with,  but  older  than,  Confucius.  So  great 
was  the  fame  of  his  wisdom  that  the  latter  philosopher 
sought  his  instructions;  but,  difTcring  from  him  in  mental 
mould  as  widely  as  Aristotle  did  from  Plato,  he  could  not 
relish  the  boldness  of  his  speculations  or  the  vague  ob- 
srnrity  of  bis  style.  He  never  repeated  his  visit,  though 
he  al\\  a\  s  spoke  of  him  with  respect  and  even  with  ad- 
miration. 

Laotzc,  the  "old  Master,"  is  the  appellation  by  which 
the  great  Taoist  is  commnnlv  known  and  it  was  ])roba1)ly 
given  him  during  his  lifetime  to  distinguish  him  from  his  ? 
younger  rival.   The  rendering  of  "  old  child  "  is  no  more  j 
to  lie  riceivrd  than  the  fiction  of  eighty  years'  gestation 
invented  to  account  for  it. 

Laotze  bequeathed  his  doctrines  to  posterity  in  "  five 
thousand  words,"  which  compose  the  Tao  Te  Ching,  the 


i8o  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


Rtile  of  Reason  and  Virtue.   In  expression,  this  work  is 

extremely  sententious:  and  in  tlu'  forni  of  its  ci imposition, 
semi-poetical.  It  abounds  in  acute  apotliegnis,  and  some 
of  its  passages  rise  to  the  c'taractcr  of  sublimity ;  but  so 
incolierent  are  its  contints  tliat  it  is  impossible  for  any 
literal  interpretation  to  form  tliem  into  a  system.  Its 
inconsistencies,  however,  readily  yield  to  that  universal 
solvent — the  hype itln  sis  of  a  mystical  meaning  under- 
lying the  letter  of  the  text.  The  following  passage  ap- 
pears to  embody  some  obscure  but  lofty  conceptions  of 
the  True  ( lod : 

"  That  which  is  invi.-ihie  is  called  yi. 

That  which  is  inaudible  is  called  lisi. 

That  which  is  impalpable  is  called  Zi'ci. 

These  three  are  inscrutable,  and  blended  in  one. 

The  first  is  not  the  brighter ;  nor  the  last  the  darker. 

It  is  interminable,  ineffable,  and  existed  when  there 
was  nothing. 

A  shape  without  shape,  a  form  without  form. 

A  confounding  mystery! 

Go  back,  you  cannot  discover  its  beginning. 

Go  forward,  you  cannot  find  its  end. 

Take  the  ancient  Reason  to  govern  the  present. 

And  ynu  will  know  the  origin  of  old. 

This  is  the  first  principle  of  Tao." 

Some  European  scholars  discover  here  a  notion  of  the 
Trinity.  ;md,  combining  the  syllables  yi.  ftsi,  and  tivi — for 
which  process,  however,  they  are  unable  to  assign  any 
very  good  reason — they  obt.iin  yilisiuri.  wiiicli  they  ac- 
cept as  a  distorted  representation  of  the  name  Jehovah. 
Lantze  is  said  to  have  travelled  in  countries  to  tli.'  west 
of  China,  where  it  is  supposed  he  may  have  met  with 
Jews,  and  learned  from  them  the  name  and  nature  of  the 
Supreme  Being.    It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  native 


THREE  RELIGIONS  OF  CHINA  i8i 


OCMntnentators.  though  knowing  nothing  of  these  conjec- 
tures, recopni/f  in  tlie  passage  a  (li  scrijnion  of  Shang  Ti. 
the  God  of  tiie  C  hinese  palriarclis ;  and  the  three  syllables 
of  which  the  acrostic  is  composed  are  admitted  to  have 
no  assignal.U'  mean  'g  in  the  Chinese  language. 

Here  we  hnil  a  connection  between  the  degenerate 
philosophy  of  after-ages  and  the  pure  fountain  of  prime- 
val trutli.  In  fact,  this  very  ."^hang  Ti,  thuugh  tliey  have 
debased  tlie  name  by  bestowing  it  on  a  whole  class  of 
their  dii  supcriores,  is  still  enthroned  on  the  summit  of 
the  Taoist  fllyinpus.  with  ascriptions  more  expressive  of 
his  absolute  <livinity  than  any  to  be  met  with  in  the 
canonical  books  of  the  Confucian  school.  At  the  head 
of  their  Theogony  stands  the  triad  of  the  San  Clung,  the 
"  Three  Pure  "  ones ;  the  first  of  whom  is  styled  "  The 
myste'  ous  sovereign  who  has  no  superior;  "  "  The  self- 
existent  source  and  beginning;"  "The  honored  one  of 
Heaven." 

He  is  said  to  have  created  the  "  three  worlds;  "  to  have 
produced  men  and  gods ;  to  have  set  the  sfars  in  motion, 
and  caused  the  jilanets  tn  revolve.  P.ut.  alas!  tins  cata- 
logue of  sublime  titles  and  divine  attributes  is  the  epitaph 
of  a  buried  faith.  The  Taoists  persuaded  themselves  that 
this  .August  Being,  wrajiped  in  the  solitude  of  his  own 
perfections,  had  delegated  the  government  of  the  universe 
to  a  subordinate,  whom  they  style  Yii  Huang  Shang  Ti. 
The  former  has  dwindled  into  an  inoperative  idea,  the 
latter  is  recognized  as  the  actual  God :  and  this  deity,  who 
plays  mayor  of  the  palace  to  a  roi  faineant,  is  regarded 
as  the  apotheosis  of  a  mortal  by  the  name  of  Chang,  an 
ancestor  of  the  present  hierarch  of  the  Taoist  religion. 
It  is  not  unusual,  after  discDursing  to  them  of  the  at- 
tributes of  the  True  God.  to  hear  the  people  exclaim, 
"  That  is  our  Yu  Huang  Shang  Ti." 


x82  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


In  its  philosophy,  this  school  is  radically  and  thoroughly 
materialistic.  The  soul  itself  they  re,q;ar(l  as  a  material 
substance,  though  of  a  more  refined  quality  tlian  the  body 
it  inhabits.  Liable  to  dissolution,  together  with  the  body, 
it  may  lie  rendered  capable  of  surviving  t!ie  wreck  by 
undergoing  a  previous  discipline.  Even  the  body  is  ca- 
pable of  becoming  invulnerable  by  the  stroke  of  death, 
so  that  the  etberealizetl  form  will,  iii^tead  of  luint^  laid  in 
the  grave,  be  wafted  away  to  the  abodes  of  the  genii. 
It  is  scarcely  possible  to  represent  the  extent  to  which 
this  idea  fired  the  minds  of  tlie  (.'liiiusc  for  aj^es  after 
its  promulgation,  or  to  estimate  the  magnitude  of  its  con- 
sequences. The  ])rospect  of  a  corporeal  immortality  to 
be  con(|uereil  by  a  laborious  disci])line ;  an  immortality 
which  was  not  the  heritage  of  the  many,  but  might  be- 
come the  prize  of  a  few,  had  for  them  attractions  far 
stronger  than  a  shadowy  '  listence  in  the  land  of  spirits ; 
and  they  sought  it  with  an  eagerness  amounting  to  frenzy. 
The  elixir  of  life  became  a  grand  object  of  pursuit — 
witness  these  lines  which  I  render  from  a'  well-known 
funcse  poem,  which  illustrates  at  once  its  spirit  and 
method : — 

"  A  prince  llic  draiiglit  imniort".!  went  to  seek 
And  finding  it,  he  soared  above  the  spheres. 
In  mountain  caverns  he  had  dweh  a  week. 
Of  human  time,  it  was  a  thousand  years." 

Alchemy,  with  its  foolish  failures  and  grand  achieve- 
ments, sprang  directly  from  the  religion  of  Tao.* 

The  leading  principle  of  Taoism,  of  which  their  dogma 
concerning  the  human  soul  is  only  a  particular  applica- 
tion, is  that  every  species  of  matter  possesses  a  soul — 
a  subtile  essence  that  may  become  endowed  with  in- 

*  See  chapter  on  Alchemy  in  this  volume. 


THREE  RELIGIONS  OF  CHINA  183 


dividual  conscious  life.  Freed  from  their  grosser  ele- 
ments, these  become  the  genii  that  presiile  over  the  v;.  i- 
ous  departments  of  nature.  Some  w  ander  at  w  ill  tlirougii 
the  realms  of  space,  endowed  with  a  p'-otcan  facility  of 
transformation :  others,  more  pure  ami  ethereal,  rise  to 
the  regions  of  the  stars,  and  take  their  places  in  the 
firmament.  Thus  the  five  principal  planets  are  called  by 
the  names  of  the  live  terrestrial  eleinents  from  which  they 
are  lielieved  to  have  originated,  and  over  which  they  are 
regarded  as  presiding.  They  are  not  worlds,  but  divini- 
ties, and  their  motions  control  tlie  destinies  of  men  and 
things — a  notion  which  has  done  much  to  inspire  the  zeal 
of  the  Chinese  for  recording  the  phenomena  of  the 
heavens. 

A  theogony  like  this  is  rich  in  the  elements  of  poetry ; 
and  most  of  the  machinery  in  Chinese  works  of  imagina- 
tion is,  in  fact,  derived  irom  this  source.  The  Liao  Chai, 
for  example,  a  collection  of  marvelous  tales  which,  in 
their  general  character,  may  be  compared  with  the  Meta- 
morphoses of  Ovid,  is  largely  founded  on  the  Taoist 
mythology. 

In  accordance  with  the  materialistic  character  of  tl  e 
Taoist  sect,  nearly  all  the  gods  whom  the  Chinese  regard 
as  presiding  over  their  material  interests  originate!  nith 
this  school.  The  god  of  rain,  the  god  of  fire,  the  god  of 
medicine,  the  god  of  agriculture,  and  the  lara.  or  kit^'-en 
gods,  arc  among  the  principal  of  this  clar.s. 

A  system  which  supplies  deities  answering  to  the  lead- 
ing wants  and  desires  of  mankind  cannot  be  unintluential ; 
but,  in  addition  to  the  strong  motives  that  attract  wor- 
shippers to  their  temples,  the  Taoist  priestiiood  possess 
two  independent  sources  of  influence.  They  hold  the 
monopoly  of  geonuuicy.  a  superstitious  art  which  pro- 
fesses to  select  on  scientific  principles  those  localities  that 


,8^  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

arc  mo.t  propitiuu.  for  building  and  burial;  and  tlK-y 
have  succeeded  in  p.rsua.lin,  tho  p..,.U-  that  they  alnnc 
arc  al.lc  to  secure  tliem  from  annoyance  by  evil  spirit.-,. 
The  philosophy  uf  Tao  has  thus  not  only  given  btrth  to  a 
religion,  but  d'egeneratcd  into  a  system  of  inaKical  -nipo.- 
ture  proi.Ud  over  hy  an  arch-magician  who  hves  in  al- 
most in^perial  state.*  and  sways  the  sceptre  over  the 
Tpirits  o\  the  invisible  worUl  as  the  Emperor  does  over 
the  living  population  of  tlie  I'-inpi'-c 

\,  a  religion,  Buddhism  seems  to  enjoy  .nore  of  the 
popular  favor  than  Taoism;  though  the  f.^rmer  professes 
men  away  from  the  world  an,,  ''--"t-e.  while 
,lH.  latter  proffers  the  blessings  of  health,  wealth,  and 

h  i^rare  that  we  find  a  lluddhist  temple  of  any  con- 
.i.lerable  reputation  that  is  not  situale.l  m  a  locality  dis- 
tinguished for  some  feature  of  its  natural  scenery.  One 
situated  in  the  midst  of  a  dusty  plain,  not  far  from  the 
..-U,.  of  Tientsin,  seemed  to  us,  when  we.  first  visittd  it. 
to  present  an  exception  to  the  general  rtde.  Sttbsequently 
however,  a  brilliant  mirage,  which  we  frequently  saw  as 
,ve  approache.l  the  teniple.  furnished  us  at  once  with  the 
explarlation  of  its  location  and  its  name.   It  ,s  called  he 
tetnple  of  the  "  Sea  of  Light ;  "  and  us  founders,  no  douht^ 
placed  it  there  in  order  that  the  decc,.tive  mirage,  which 
is  alwavs  visible  in  bright  sunny  weather  im.dit  serve  its 
contemplative  inmates  as  a  memento  of  the  chu  f  tenet  ol 
their  philosophv-that  all  things  are  unreal,  and  human 
life  itself  a  shifting  phantasmagoria  of  empty  shadows. 

Sequestered  valleys  enclosed  by  mountain-peaks,  and 
elevated  far  above  the  world  which  they  i^ofe^s  to  de- 

»Th.,  >,  nnt  quit,  trnc  of  the  present  High-priest,  who  is  so 
reduced  in  circumstances  that  he  sometimes  leaves^  h.s  residence 
the  Lung  Hu  mountains  to  raise  money  in  wealthier  regions. 


THREE  RELIGIONS  OF  CHINA  185 


spise,  arc  favorite  seats  for  the  monastic  communities  of 
liuddliism.  But  it  is  no  yearning  after  Go  1  that  leads 
them  to  court  retirement;  nor  is  it  the  adoration  of  na- 
ture's Author  that' prompts  them  to  place  their  shrines  in 
tile  midst  of  His  subiimest  works.  To  them  the  universe 
is  a  vacuum,  and  emptiness  the  highest  object  of  con- 
templation. 

They  are  a  strange  paradox — reHgious  atheists!  Ac- 
knowledging no  First  Cause  or  Conscious  Ruling  Power, 

they  hold  that  the  liuman  soul  revolves  perpetually  in  the 
urn  of  fate,  liable  to  endless  ills,  and  enjoying  no  real 
good.  As  it  cannot  cease  to  be,  its  only  resource  against 
this  state  of  interniiuahli-  misery  is  the  extinction  of  con- 
sciousness— a  remedy  whicli  lies  wiiliin  itself,  and  which 
they  endeavour  to  attain  by  ascetic  exercises. 

Their  daily  piayers  consist  of  endless  repetitions,  which 
are  not  exported  to  be  heard  by  the  unconscious  deity  to 
whom  they  are  addressed,  but  are  confessedly  designed 
merely  to  exert  a  reflex  influence  on  the  worshipper — i.  e., 
to  occupy  the  mind  with  empty  lunds  and  withdraw  It 
from  thought  and  feeling.  Ta  Ma,  one  of  their  saints,  ii 
said  thus  to  have  sat  motionless  for  nine  years  with  h>s 
face  to  the  wall ;  not  engaged,  as  a  German  would  con- 
jecture, in  "  thinking  the  wall,"  but  occupied  with  the 
more  difficult  task  of  thinking  nothing  at  ill. 

Those  in  whom  the  discipline  is  coinplete  are  believed 
to  have  entered  the  Nirvana — not  an  Elysium  of  con- 
scious enjoyment,  but  a  negative  state  of  exemption  from 
pain.  Such  is  the  condition  of  all  the  Buddhas,  who, 
though  the  name  is  taken  to  signify  supreme  intelligence, 
are  reduced  to  an  empty  abstraction  in  a  state  which  is 
described  as  pu  shciii^  pn  inich  "neither  life  nor  death;" 
and  such  is  the  aspiration  of  all  their  votaries.  Melan- 
choly spectacle!    Men  of  acute  minds,  bewildered  in  the 


1 86  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


maze  of  tlicir  own  speculations,  and  seeking  to  attaul 
perfection  by  stripping  themselves  of  the  highest  attri- 

I)ittfs  (if  luinianity ! 

As  a  pliiloso[)hy,  IJiuldhisin  resembles  Stoicism  in  de- 
riving its  leading  motive  from  the  fear  of  evil.  Hut 
white  the  laiter  encased  itself  in  panoply,  and.  standin^' 
in  martial  attitude,  defied  the  world  to  spoil  the  treasures 
laid  up  in  its  bosom,  the  former  seeks  security  by  empty- 
ing the  soul  of  its  susceptibilities  and  leavintr  nothing  tliat 
is  capable  of  being  harmed  or  lost — i.  e.,  treating  the  soul 
as  Epictetus  is  said  to  have  done  Kis  dwelling-house,  in 
order  that  he  might  not  be  annoyed  by  tlic  visits  of 
thieves.  It  dries  up  tTie  sources  of  life,  wraps  the  soul 
in  the  cerements  of  the  grave,  and  aims  to  convert  a 
living  being  into  a  spiritual  nninimy  which  shall  survive 
all  changes  without  being  afTected  by  them. 

This  is  the  spirit  and  these  the  principles  of  esoteric 
Buddhism  as  enunciated  by  those  inenibers  of  the  inner 
circle  whose  wan  cheeks  and  sunken,  rayless  eyes  indicate 
that  they  are  far  advanced  in  the  process  of  self-annihila- 
tion. In  their  external  manifestations  they  vary  with 
(lifTerent  schools  and  countries,  the  lamas  of  Tartary  and 
the  sarmanas  of  Ceylon  appearing  to  have  little  in 
common. 

To  adapt  itself  to  the  compreliension  of  the  massc3, 
Buddhism  has  personified  its  abstract  conceptions  and 
converted  them  into  divinities;  while,  to  pave  the  way 
for  its  easier  introduction,  it  readily  embraces  the  gods 
and  heroes  of  each  country  in  its  comprehensive  pantheon. 

In  China  the  Nirvana  was  found  to  be  too  subtle  an 
idea  for  popular  contemplation,  and,  in  nrdcr  to  furnish 
the  people  with  a  more  attractive  object  of  worship  than 
an  luiconscious  deity,  the  Buddhists  brought  forward  a 
Goddess  of  Mercy,  whose  special  merit  was  that,  having 


THREE  RELIGIONS  OF  CHINA  187 


readied  llie  verge  of  JCirvana,  she  rleclined  to  enter,  pre- 
ferring to  remain  wliere  slie  could  hear  tlie  cries  and  buc- 
cor  the  calamities  of  those  who  were  struggling  with  the 
niaiiifnld  evils  <jf  a  unrld  of  change.  [•>oni  this  eireiini- 
slance  .she  is  called  the  Ts'e  I'ei  Kuan  Vin,  the  "  Merciful 
Hearer  of  Prayers  "  of  men. 

T'^vs  winning  attrihute  meets  a  want  of  humanity,  and 
makes  her  a  favorite  among  the  votaries  of  the  faith. 
While  the  Three  Buddhas  hold  a  more  prominent  posi- 
tion in  the  temple,  she  occupies  the  first  place  in  the 
hearts  of  tlieir  worshippers.  Temples  of  a  secondary 
class  are  often  devoted  especially  to  her;  and  in  the 
greater  ones  she  almost  alwnys  funis  a  shrine  or  comer 
where  she  is  represented  witli  a  thousand  hands  readv  to 
succor  human  suffering,  or  holding  in  her  arms  a  heauti- 
ful  infant,  ready  to  confer  the  blessing  of  offspring  on  her 
faithful  W(jrshii)pers — in  this  !ri-l  attrihu'e  rescmhling 
the  favorite  object  of  popular  woiship  in  papal  countries. 
From  which,  indeed,  there  is  reason  to  believe  she  was 
derived. 

!n  the  Sea-light  Monastery  above  referred  to,  she  ap- 
pears in  a  large  side  hall,  habited  in  a  cloak,  her  head  en- 
circled hy  an  inscrijnion  in  gilded  characters  which  pro- 
claims her  as  the  "  GoJdess  whose  favor  protects  the 
second  birth."  This  language  seems  to  express  a  Chris- 
tian thought ;  hut  in  reality  nothing  could  be  more  in- 
tensely pagan.  It  relates  to  the  transmigration  01  souls, 
which  is  the  fundamental  doctrine  of  the  system ;  atid  in- 
forms the  visitor  that  this  is  the  divinity  to  whom  he  is 
to  look  for  protection  in  passing  through  the  successive 
changes  of  his  future  existence. 

Within  the  mazes  of  that  mighty  labyrinth,  there  is 
room  for  every  condition  of  life  on  earth,  an<l  for  purga- 
tories and  paradises  innumerable  besides.    Jieyond  these 


1 88  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


the  common  Buddhist  never  looks.  To  earn  by  works 
of  merit— which  play  an  impurtant  part  in  tlu-  mo.lifud 
system— the  reversion  of  a  comfortable  mandariiiate.  or 
a  place  in  the  "  Paradise  of  the  Western  Sky."  bounds 
his  aspirations.  And  to  escape  from  having  tluir  smils 
,„,un,l,d  in  a  spiritual  mortar,  or  ground  between  spirUual 
miUstuiKs  in  r.adcs;  or  avoid  the  doom  of  dwelling  m 
the  body  of  a  brute  on  earth,  cmistitutes  with  tlic  ignor- 
ant the  strongest  nioiivi'  to  deter  them  from  vice— lliuse 
and  a  thousand  other  penahies  being  set  forth  by  pictures 
and  rude  casts  to  impress  the  minds  of  such  as  are  unable 
to  reatl. 

iluddliism  was  little  known  in  China  prior  to  A.  n..  ttb. 
During  an  eclipse  of  Confucianism  that  lasti-l  two  cen- 
tiivii.s—cansed  by  it>  i.ioseripiion,  mi  political  grounds, 
the  Emperor  Ming  Ti  sent  an  "nibassy  to  invite  priests 
from  India,  and  the  triad  of  religions  was  completed. 
He  is  sai<l  to  have  been  proniiited  to  this  liy  a  remarkahle 
dream,  lie  had  seen,  he  said  to  bis  courtiers,  a  man  of 
gold,  boldini:  in  bis  hand  a  bow  and  two  arrows.  They, 
recognizir  ,  in  tliese  objects  tlu-  ele mnts  of  I'o  -the 
name  of  lUiddba  as  it  is  written  in  i..  Chinese  language 
— expoun<led  the  dream  as  an  intimation  that  the  Bud- 
dhist religion  on;j;ht  to  be  introdiK-ed.  The  story  of  the 
dream  is  evidently  of  later  growth,  but  it  is  interesting 
ti  speculate  as  t(j  wiiat  the  condition  of  China  might 
b,,.e  been  if  the  ambassadors,  instead  o,  stoi)pir.g  in  In- 
dia, ha<1  procee.U<l  to  Palestine.  As  ,\  :s  the  success  of 
Buddhism  demonstrates  the  possibility  of  a  foreign  faith 
taking  root  in  the  soil  of  China. 

The  Sail  Chiao.  or  Three  Rclitrio,.  .-.x- -  now  passed  in 
revision.  We  have  viewed  them,  bowever.  owing  to  the 
limits  of  our  space,  only  in  outline,  neither  allowing  our- 


THREE  RELIGIONS  OF  CHINA 


selves,  on  the  oi  e  hand,  to  follow  up  those  superstitious 
Iiraotiii's  which  attach  tlirmsi-lvts  to  tlu'  s»vcral  scliools 
like  the  nio.ss  and  ivy  that  festoon  the  b<jii<;;hs  of  ;d 
trees,  nor.  on  the  other,  to  enter  into  a  minute  investiga- 
tion of  those  systems  of  philosophy  in  which  they  have 
their  root,  i'hc  fact  that  each  takes  its  rise  in  a  school 
of  philosophy  is  significant  of  the  tendencies  of  human 
ihouf^ht. 

The  Confucian  philosophy  in  its  prominent  character- 
istics was  ethical,  occupying  itself  mainly  with  social  re- 
lations and  civil  duties,  sluiiiniii^  studiously  all  ([iiestions 
that  enter  into  ontological  subtleties  or  partake  of  the 
marvelous  and  the  supernatural. 

The  i)hilosoi)hy  of  Tao  as  developed  by  the  followers 
of  Laotze,  if  not  in  the  form  in  which  it  was  Kft  hy 
their  master,  may  be  characterized  as  physical.  For  the 
individual  it  prescribed  a  physical  discipline ;  and,  with- 
out any  conception  of  true  science,  it  was  filled  with  the 
idea  of  inexhaustible  resources,  hidden  in  the  elements 
of  material  nature. 

The  Ruddhist  philosophy  was  pre-eminently  metaphy- 
sical. Originating  with  a  people  who,  far  more  than  the 
Chinese,  are  addicted  to  abstruse  speculations,  it  occu- 
pied itself  with  siilitle  inquiries  into  the  nature  and  facul- 
ties of  the  human  mind,  the  veracity  of  its  perceptions, 
and  the  grounds  of  our  delusive  faith  in  the  independent 
existence  of  an  external  world. 

These  three  philosophies,  differing  thus  widely  in  their 
essential  character — one  being  thoroughlv  material,  an- 
other purely  ideal,  and  the  third  repudiating  all  such 
questions  and  holding  itself  neutral  and  indifferent — yet 
exhibit  some  remarkable  p>oints  of  agreement.  They 
agree  in  the  original  cnnission  or  negation  of  religious 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


ideas;  an«l  llit-y  coincide  no  less  remarkably  in  cvolvinR 
each,  from  ils  negative  basis,  a  system  of  riliv,'ioii ;  ami 
in  i-nntril>titiii)^  eadi  its  (|nnta  \i>  llu'  poptilar  idulatiy. 

CdnfiKiiis  ■•  scl<loiii  hpuki-  ii'  llic  divinities,"  and 
tau(;tit  his  disciples  to  *'  keep  them  at  a  ciistaiice ; ami 
Vit  llif  twnns  (if  ri'spi'cl  wliiili  lie  r!ijuiiud  for  <leci'a-cd 
anii>i(irs  led  to  tiieir  virtual  deilkatiuii,  ami  prumoted. 
if  it  did  not  oripinate,  the  natiotial  hero-worship.  Kike 
Comte  t'le  modern  ,•lp|)^ll^•  nf  ]ic 'silivisiii.  prnft  scd 

to  occup\  himself  vvliuUy  with  positive  ideas,  he  was 
imahle  to  satisfy  the  cravinps  of  his  spiritnal  nature  with- 
out li;i\iii.L;  le^-ourse  to  a  relif^ioii  of  liuuianity. 

TIu'  liudiUiist  creed  denies  alike  the  reality  of  the  ma- 
terial world  and  the  existence  of  an  overrnlinR  mind;  yet 
it  lias  peopled  an  ideal  uiiiversi'  u  itli  a  race  of  ideal  gods, 
all  of  wluim  arc  entities  in  the  belief  of  the  vulgar. 

The  Taoist  creed  acknowlcdRes  no  such  catefjory  as 
that  of  spirit  in  contradistinction  from  matter,  yit  it 
sv.arms  luaviii  and  earth  with  tutelar  spirits  whom  the 
IMJople  regard  as  divine 

\'  •  here  a  process  directly  the  reverse  of  that  which 
certa  riters  of  modern  I'.uropi.-  assert  to  he  the  natuial 
|)ropre>.s  of  the  human  mind.  Acccrding  to  ihem,  men 
set  out  with  the  In-licf  of  many  gods,  whom  they  at  length 
reduce  to  tinity,  and  finally  sujierscde  liy  reeoj^ni/ing  the 
laws  of  nature  as  independent  of  a  personal  administrator. 
The  worship  of  one  God  is  the  oldest  recorded  form  of 
(.  Iiinese  rili,Ljion.  ;uid  idolatry  is  ati  innovation.  I''ven 
now  new  idols  are  constantly  taking  their  place  in  the 
national  pantheon ;  and  so  strong  is  the  tendency  in  this 
direction  that  in  every  ease  wlu  re  ])Iii!osopliy  has  laid  the 
foundation,  idolatry  has  come  in  to  cuinpletc  the  structure. 

It  is  incorrect  to  assert  that  any  one  of  the  San  Chiao 
is  a  State  religion  to  the  exclusion  of  the  others,  though 


THREE  RELIGIONS  OF  CHINA  191 


the  Confmian  is  sometimes  so  rcRardal  on  account  of  its 
greater  inthiencc  with  tlie  niiin^'  classes  anil  its  marked 

prnniimncc  in  cniini'i.tii iti  with  St.Uc  ccrnnoiiials.  N'ot 
only  arc  they  ail  rccD^nizci'  and  tolcratcil,  l>iit  they  all 
share  the  Imperial  patronage.  The  shrines  of  each  of  the 
Three  I\<  lif,Mi  ii'^  arc  nftcii  erected  liy  imperia!  mimificcnce, 
and  their  priests  and  sacred  rites  provided  for  at  the  Im- 
perial expense  with  impartial  li!»erality. 

^y^t  only  ilo  tliey  cu  e\i>l  w  ithout  coiillict  in  the  I'.iii- 
pirc,  hut  they  exercise  a  join*,  sway  over  almost  every 
mind  in  its  immense  population.  It  is  impossible  to  ap- 
l>ortion  the  people  amonp  these  several  creeds.  They  are 
all  Confucians,  all  Buddhists,  all  Taoists.  They  all  rever- 
ence Confucius  and  worship  their  ancestors — all  partici- 
jiate  in  tlie  "  feast  of  hungry  },dio'.|s."  ami  employ  the 
Muddhist  huriai -service ;  and  all  resort  to  the  magical 
devices  of  the  Taoists  to  protect  themselves  against  the 
assaults  of  evil  spirits,  or  secure  "  good  luck  "  in  busi- 
ness. They  celehrate  their  niarriapes  accordin}^  to  the 
Confucian  rites;  in  Iniildlng  their  houses,  they  ask  the 
advice  of  a  Taoist ;  and  in  cases  of  alarming  illness  em- 
ploy him  to  exorcise  evil  spirits.  At  death  they  commit 
their  souls  to  the  keeping  of  the  Buddhists.  The  people 
assert,  and  with  truth,  that  these  religions,  originally 
three,  have  hccome  one:  and  they  arc  accustomed  to  sym- 
iii'lize  tiiis  unity  by  erecting  San  Cliiao  T'aiiji,  Temples  of 
tlu-  Three  Religions,  in  which  Confucius  and  Laotze  ap- 
pear on  the  rigiit  and  left  of  I'>tid(lha.  as  fortiiinfj  a  triad  of 
.sages.  This  arrangement,  however,  gives  great  offense 
to  some  of  the  more  zealous  disciples  of  Confucius ;  and 
a  few  years  ago  a  memorial  was  presented  to  the  Em- 
peror, praying  him  to  demolish  the  San  Chiao  T'ang, 
which  stood  near  the  tomb  of  their  great  teacher,  who  has 
"  no  equal  but  Heaven." 


192  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

The  effects  uf  this  cdaUtion  may  he  traced  in  their  litera- 
ture as  well  as  in  tlie  iiianiu  i  s  .  w\  customs  of  tlic  people. 
Of  this,  one  i  xaniplc  will  suffice,  though  \vc  mh^ht  go  on, 
if  space  pcrniittc<l,  to  show  how  freely  the  later  works  oi 
each  school  appropriate  the  phraseology  of  the  others, 
and  to  point  oiii  the  extent  i..'  which  the  general  language 
of  the  country  has  heen  enriched  hy  a  vocahiilary  of  relig- 
ious terms,  chiefly  of  Buddhist  origin,  all  of  which  are 
incorporated  in  the  Imperial  Dictionary  and  i)ass  as  cur- 
rent coin  in  the  halls  of  the  literary  tnhunal. 

In  the  Liao  Chai,  a  collection  of  tales,  there  is  a  story 
which  owes  its  humor  tu  the  hizarre  intermixture  of  ele- 
ments from  each  of  the  Three  Religions. 

A  young  nohleiiian,  riding  out,  hawk  in  hand,  is  thrown 
from  his  horse  ami  taken  up  for  dead.  On  heiii-  c-n 
veved  to  his  house,  he  opens  his  eyes  and  gradually  re- 
covers his  hodily  strength  ;  hut,  to  the  grief  of  his  family, 
he  is  hopelessly  insane.  He  fancies  himself  a  Buddhist 
priest,  repels  the  caresses  of  the  ladies  of  his  harem,  and 
insists  on  hting  conveyed  to  a  distant  provuice,  where  he 
affirms  he  has  passed  his  life  in  a  monastery.  On  arriv- 
ing he  proves  himself  to  he  the  ahhot ;  and  the  mystery 
of  his  transfiguration  is  at  once  solved. 

He  had  led  a  dissolute  life,  and  his  flimsy  soul,  unable 
to  sustain  the  shock  of  death,  was  at  once  dissipated.  The 
soul  of  a  priest  .vho  had  just  expired  happened  to  he  float- 
ing In  .  and.  led  hy  that  desire  to  inhabit  a  body  which 
some  say  impelled  the  devils  to  enter  the  herd  of  swine, 
it  took  possession  of  the  still  warm  corpse. 

The  young  nohleman  was  a  Confucian  of  the  modem 
type,  the  idea  of  the  soul  cluingin-  its  earthly  tenement 
is  r.tiddhistic.  .And  that  which  rendered  the  metamor- 
phosis iwssihh.-,  without  waiting  for  another  hirth.  was 
the  Taoist  doctrine  that  the  soul  is  dissolved  with  the 


THREE  RELIGIONS  OF  CHINA  193 


body,  unless  it  be  purified  and  concentrated  by  vigorous 

discipline. 

It  is  curious  to  inquire  on  what  principles  this  recon- 
ciliation has  been  effected.  Have  the  three  creeds 
mingled  tn.iretluT  like  the  tlirer  ,t,^'l-^^  in  the  atinosjihcre. 
each  contrilnitini^  some  itigredient  U>  the  composition  of  a 
vital  fluid ;  or  hlcmled  like  the  three  primary  colors  of  the 
spectrum,  imparting  their  own  hues  in  varying  ])rnpor- 
tions;  but  all  present  at  every  point?  It  is  not  a  healthy 
atmosphere  that  supplies  the  breath  of  the  new-bom  soul 
in  China;  not  a  pure  and  steady  light  that  meets  its  open- 
ing eyes.  \'et  eacii  of  tlio^e  s> steins  meets  a  want;  and 
tiie  whole,  taken  together,  SL'pplies  llie  cravings  of  nature 
as  well  perhaps  as  any  creeo  not  derived  from  a  divine 
revelation. 

The  Three  Religions  are  not,  as  the  natives  thought- 
lessly assume,  identical  in  signification  and  differing  only 
in  their  mode  of  expression.  As  we  have  already  seen,  it 
is  hardly  possible  to  conceive  of  three  creeds  more  totally 
distinct  or  radically  antagonistic;  and  yet,  to  a  certain 
extent,  they  are  supplemeiuary.  .Niid  to  this  it  is  that  they 
owe  their  union  and  their  i)i  rmanence. 

Confucius  gave  his  people  an  elaborate  theory  of  their 
social  organization  and  civil  pnilitv  ;  Imt  ulu  n  they  looked 
nliroad  on  nature  with  its  un.solved  problems,  they  were 
un.iMe  to  confine  llieir  thoughts  within  the  limits  of  his 
cautious  positivism.  They  were  fascinated  by  mystery, 
and  felt  tliat  in  nature  there  were  elements  of  the  super- 
natural which  they  could  not  ignore,  even  if  they  did  not 
understand  them.  Hence  the  rise  of  Taoism,  captivating 
llie  imagination  by  its  hieiarchy  of  sjiirits  and  personitied 
powers,  and  meeting,  in  .some  degree,  the  longing  for  a 
future  life  by  maintaining,  though  under  hard  conditions, 
the  possible  achievement  of  a  corporeal  immortality. 


194  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

Witli  the  momentous  question  of  existence  suspended  on 
this  bare  possibility,  Buddhism  came  to  them  like  an  evan- 
gel of  hope,  assuring  every  man  of  an  inalienahl.  mterest 
in  a  life  to  come.  It  gave  t'.>.em  a  better  r  ^ycholo^y  of  the 
Iniinan  mind  than  they  had  before  posse.->-d ;  afforded  a 
plausible  explanation  of  the  inequalities  in  the  condition 
of  men;  and,  by  the  theory  of  metenipsycliosis,  seemed  to 
reveal  the  link  that  connects  man  wit';  :he  lower  animals, 
on  the  one  hand,  and  with  the  gods,  on  the  other.  No 
wonder  it  excited  the  popular  mind  to  a  pitch  of  enthusi- 
asm, and  provoked  the  adherents  of  the  other  creeds  to 
virulent  opposition.  ,   . . 

Taoism,  as  opposed  to  it,  became  more  decidedl>'  mate- 
rial and  Confucianism  mc  e  positively  atheistic.  The  dis- 
ciples of  the  latter  especially  assailed  it  with  acrimonious 
controversy-denying,  though  they  liad  hitherto  been 
silent  on  such  questions,  the  personality  of  God  and  the 
future  life  of  the  human  soul. 

Now  however,  the  effervescence  of  passion  has  died 
awav— the  antagonistic  elements  '  ave  long  since  neutra- 
lized each  other,  and  the  thrc :  creecis  have  subsided  into  a 
stable  cqmlibrium,  or  rather  become  compacted  into  a  firm 
conglomerate.    Tlic  etlmal.  the  phy  iT.!,  and  the  meta- 
physical live  together  in  harmony.   The  sJiool  that  denies 
ihe  existence  of  matter,  that  which  occupi.  s  Usel  wa.my 
with  the  properties  of  matter,  and  that,  :  ^rain,  which  de- 
nounces the  subtleties  of  both  and  builds  on  ethzcs.  have 
ceased  their  controversies.  One  deriving  its  m  ^ue  from 
the  fear  of  death,  anothei  actuate.l  by  a  dread  c!  the  .  v,ls 
-itten.lant  on  bmnan  lif  •.  and  the  third  absorbea  in  the 
present  and  indilTercnt  ahkc  tu  hope  or  fear,  all  are  ac- 
cepted with  equal  faith  by  an   unreasoning  populace. 
V/ithout  perceiving  their  i^oint.  r,f  discrepancy,  or  under- 
standing the  manner  in  which  they  supplement  each  other, 


THREE  RELIGIONS  OF  CHINA  195 


they  accept  each  as  answering  to  certain  cravings  of  their 
inward  nature,  and  blend  them  all  in  a  huge  heterogene- 
ous and  incongruous  creed.  It  may  help  to  reconcile  ap- 
parently contradictory  statements  to  remember  that  each 
of  the  three  systems  appears  under  a  twofold  as])ect — first 
as  an  csdtcric  plii'osnpliy.  afterwards  as  a  popular  reiifj^ion. 
Tluis  a  cliicf  object  of  the  Buddhist  discipline  was  the 
extinction  of  consciousness.  Yet  the  Chinese  embraced  it 
as  tlx-i"-  )est  as'-urance  of  a  ftUure  life.  What  the  pliilnso- 
plier  was  anxious  to  cast  away,  the  populace  were  eager 
to  possess. 

It  would  be  intcre>tinp  to  inquire,  had  we  sufficient 
spa  e,  what  have  been  the  intellectual  and  moral  influ- 
ences of  these  several  systems,  separate  and  combined. 
They  have,  it  is  true,  given  rise  to  various  forms  of  de- 
grading superstition,  and,  supporting  instead  of  destroy- 
ing each  other,  they  bind  the  mind  of  the  nation  in  three- 
fold fetters ;  still,  we  are  inclined  to  think  that  each  has 
served  a  useful  purpose  in  the  long  education  of  the 
Chinese  people,  and  that  each  represonts  a  distinct  stage 
in  the  progress  of  religious  thoujjlit.  l;;u!dhisni  vastly  cr 
larped  their  religious  conceptions.  Their  ideas,  to  borrow 
a  mathematical  illustration,  were  limited,  prior  to  the  in- 
troduction of  Buddhism,  to  two  dimensions, — to  some- 
thing that  m.iy  he  described  as  a  "  flat-lam!,"  with  length 
and  breadth,  but  no  height.  Buddhism  gave  it  height, 
soaring  up  to  the  heavens  and  developing  a  view  of  the 
universe,  the  grandeur  of  wliicb,  perhaps,  nothing  can 
exceed.  Is  it  possible  that,  after  this  universe  of  three 
dimensions,  we  shall  have  one  of  four  dimensions  ?  There 
i^.  in  my  view,  room  for  the  fourth  dimension,  or  (to 
drop  the  figure)  there  is  room  for  a  fourth  stage  in  the 
progression, — one  which  China  is  waiting  for.  Christi- 
anity alone  can  supply  the  defects  of  all  the  systems,  and 


196  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

present  one  harmonious  unity.  They  are  now  offered  a 
better  faitli— one  wliicli  is  cimsistent  with  itself  and  ade- 
(|iiate  to  satisfy  all  their  spiritual  necessities.  Will  they 
receive  it?  1  he  habit  of  receiving  such  contradictory 
svstenis  has  rendered  their  minds  almost  incapable  of 
\\  eidiinp  evidence ;  and  they  never  ask  concerning  a  re- 
ligion ■•  is  it  true  ?  "  but  "  is  it  good  ?  "  riiristianity,  how- 
ever, with  its  exclusive  and  peremptory  claims,  has  already 
bc-titt  to  arouse  their  attenticn:  and  when  the  spirit  of 
inquiry  is  once  thoroughly  awakened,  the  San  CInao,  or 
Three  Creeds,  will  not  long  sustain  the  ordeal. 


NOTE  I 

THE  EMPEROR  AT  THE  ALTAR  OF  HEAVEN 

THE  Roman  Emperors  always  associated  with  their 
other  titles  that  of  Pontifex  Maximus;  and  the 
Sovereigns  of  China  have  from  time  immemorial 
acted  as  High  Priests  oi  the  empire. 

It  was  in  that  capacity  thai  Ills  Majesty  Kuang  Hsii 
ofificiat'  '  ;it  the  Temple  of  1  Kaven  on  the  22nd  December, 
1887,  f  the  first  time,  on  the  occasinn  of  the  solstitial 
sacrifices.  < 'n  the  previous  day,  he  proceeded  to  the 
Temple  with  great  pomp,  accompanied  by  the  grandees  of 
the  Court,  three  elephants  harnessed  to  as  many  chariots 
appearing  in  the  procession.  Having  prei)ared  himself 
by  a  night  spent  in  fasting  and  meditation  to  approach 
the  presence  of  the  King  of  Kings,  he  prostrated  himself 
nine  times  before  a  tablet  in-cribid  with  the  name  of 
Shang  Ti,  and  offered  an  ox,  the  bones  of  the  victim  being 
consumed  in  a  furnace. 
As  to  the  herd  of  common  gods,  the  Emperor  can  make 


THREE  RELIGIONS  OF  CHINA  197 


and  unmake  tluin  at  will.  Ilo  >  vtii  assumes  to  decide 
wIkiIut  a  living  I'-uildlui  shall  or  shall  not  have  the  privi- 
lej^e  of  rc-appearing  in  aiiuiher  hodv  ;  hut  in  the  presence 
of  Shang  Ti,  the  master  of  China's  millions  aliases  iiini- 
self  in  tile  du<t,  and  confesses  hinisclf  a  subject  of  law. 

W  hen  the  Taiping  rebellion  was  at  its  liei^t;lil  in  1853, 
the  Emperor  Hsien  Feng  repaired  to  the  Altar  of  Heaven, 
confessed  his  sins,  and  iniiilored  on  l)ehalf  of  his  sutUrint^ 
people  the  compassion  of  the  Sovereign  of  the  L'niverse. 
i;\  this  act,  he  acknowledged  that  he  ruled  by  delegated 
authority,  and  tliat  be  was  answerable  for  its  proper  use. 

The  same  idea  is  impressively  set  forth  by  a  row  of 
iron  censers,  ranged  arotmd  the  foot  of  the  altar.  In 
these,  it  is  not  strijis  of  mimic  gold  that  are  consumed, 
nor  sticks  of  incense,  but  long  lists  of  the  names  of  crim- 
inals condemned  to  death,  the  snioke  and  flame  rising  up 
to  Heaven,  ai)]Haling  for  ratification  or  redress  to  the 
Suiireme  Court  of  the  L'niverse. 

The  Emperor  is  a  monotheist,  because  there  is  only  one 
God  sufficiently  exalted  to  lie  to  him  an  object  of  worship 
in  the  highest  si-n-e :  for,  though  he  does  worship  at  the 
shrines  of  other  divinities,  to  none  but  Shang  Ti  does 
he  employ  the  humble  style  of  a  servant,  and  he,  if  not  the 
onlv  worshipper  of  Shang  Ti,  is  the  only  one  who  is  per- 
mitted to  make  use  of  the  prescribed  ritual.  For  any  one 
else  to  presume  to  imitate  that  ritual  would  be  an  act  of 
liigh  treason,  as  it  could  have  but  one  meaning. — tliat  of 
an  intention  to  usurp  the  prerogatives  and  to  seize  the 
throne  of  the  sovereign.  The  only  instance  of  this  which 
we  have  on  record — except  in  cases  of  overt  rebellion — 
is  that  of  the  Prince  of  Ch'in  erecting  an  altar  to  Shang 
Ti.  some  2,500  years  ago.  The  act  betokened  a  disposi- 
tion on  his  part  to  sei/e  the  falling  crown  of  the  Cbous, — 
which  one  of  his  descendants  actually  accomplished.  The 


198  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


C'Oii  KmptTor  in  the  iiieantiiiio  tolcratid  tlio  al)ust',  be- 
cause he  lacked  tlie  power  to  punish  so  great  a  vassal. 

The  antiquity  of  this  Imperial  rite  is  not  the  least  in- 
teresting of  iN  features.  It  goes  hack  to  tlic  first  ol'  the 
Three  Dynasties,  to  a  date  when  Melchisedek  combined 
with  his  kingly  office  that  of  "  Priest  of  the  Most  High 
God."  In  tliat  day,  there  was  no  Buddhism,  no  Taoism; 
but,  whether  that  primitive  worship  connects  itself  with  a 
purer  form  of  partriarchal  faith,  or  whether,  as  Emerson 
expresses  it — 

"  Up  from  the  lieart  of  nature  came, 
Like  tfie  volcano's  tongue  of  flame" — 

I  shall  not  undertake  to  determine. 

The  iilea  of  the  otlerings  on  this  occasion  is  tliat  of  a 
banquet,  in  which  the  spirit  of  the  Supreme  condescends 
to  accept  entertainment  at  tlie  hand  of  a  hiortal.  lli-  is 
accompanied  by  eight  imperial  guests, — the  ancestors  of 
the  officiating  sovereign,— who,  like  Wen  Wang  in  the 
Book  of  Odt's,  are  regarded  as  favored  guests  in  the 
Court  of  Heaven. 

The  august  pageant  is  withheld  from  eyes  profane ;  and 
of  course  all  foreigners  in  Peking  are  officially  invited  to 
be  absent. 

I  do  not,  accordingly,  profess  to  give  you  the  observa- 
tions of  an  eye-witness;  though  I  have  perhajjs  as  good  a 
right  to  do  so  as  certain  war  correspondents  have  had, 
to  depict  a  battle-scene,  when  they  have  viewed  the  smoke 
at  a  distance.  I  have  seen  the  altar;  and  I  have  at  this 
moment  the  ritual  of  the  day  before  my  eyes.  P.ut  it 
would  not  add  much  to  the  interest  of  my  readers  to  have 
a  libretto  of  the  nine  pieces  of  sacred  music,  or  r  .  in- 
ventorv  of  the  subordinate  ofTerini,''-  which  acconn- 
the  I'an  \iu,  or  o.k  of  burnt  sacrifice. 


THREE  RELIGIONS  OF  CHINA  199 


NOTE  II 


THE  DUKE  OF  k'UNG — SUCCESSOR  OF  CONFUCIUS 

r^HE  Peking  Gaseltccontains  the  fdlowing  obituary 


annDuncemeiit,  in  the  usual  form  of  an  Imperial 


decrcf :  "  The  Duke  K'uiig  llsianj^  K'o,  lineal 
successor  of  the  Holy  Sage,  has  departed  this  life.  Let 
tin-  proper  Boan!  reixTt  as  to  the  marks  of  Tiiiperial  favor 
to  be  accorded  in  connection  with,  the  funeral  rites." 

The  Duke  was  about  twenty-six  years  of  age,  and  a 
descendant  of  Confucius  at  a  remove  of  more  than  sev- 
enty generations.  The  last  on  the  family  record  published 
in  the  last  century  was  the  seventy-first.  Of  his  personal 
character  we  know  nothing,  save  that  he  once  admitted  a 
company  of  foreigners,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Williamson  and 
others,  into  his  presence,  and  treated  them  with  great 
urbanity.  What  interests  us  more,  and  furnishes  the  sole 
reason  for  chronicling  his  death,  whether  in  these  lines 
or  in  the  still  briefer  notice  in  the  Peking  Gazette,  is  his 
representative  character.  K'ung  Ilsiang  K'o  was  head  of 
the  Confucian  clan,  and  as  such  he  enjoyed  the  dignities 
and  emoluments  of  a  noble  of  the  first  class. 

Hereditary  rank  makes  so  small  a  figure  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  Chinese  government  that  we  some- 
times hear  it  asserted  that  there  is  no  such  thing  in  China. 
Now,  those  who  hazard  this  assertion,  not  only  leave  out 
of  view  the  feudal  organization  of  the  Manchu  and  Mon- 
gol races,  but  forget  the  sonorous  titles  prefixed  to  the 
names  of  some  of  the  leading  Chinese  statesmen  of  the 
present  day.  We  can  scarcely  take  up  a  numher  of  the 
Peking  Gazette  without  being  reminded  that  Li  Hung 
Chang  is  an  earl,  of  the  first  grade ;  and  a  few  years  aofo 


200 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


tlio  title  of  nian|uis,  w.i'^  ir.ailf  equally  prnmimiit  tn 
nection  vvitli  tlie  name  of  tlie  late  cniinciu  I'seiij;  KiU)  l-an 
and  his  eciually  tlistinguislicd  son.  In  a  word,  all  tin- 
live  degrees  of  hereditary  nnjiillty  wliidi  wrre  in  use  t!iii.e 
tlioiisand  years  apo  are  to  be  found  ( l)y  searching)  among 
tilt  Chinese  of  to-d.i\  ;  Imt  with  this  important  difference, 
that  tlicy  no  longer  imply  tiie  possession  of  landed  estates 
or  territorial  jurisdiction.  Leaving  the  secular  peerage 
of  China  proper,  as  well  as  that  of  the  dominant  race,  to 
be  treated  by  some  one  who  has  leisure  and  inclination  lor 
die  subject,  we  proixisp  to  devntf  a  frw  para,i,M- iplis  to 
what  we  venture  to  denominate  the  sacred  heraldry  of  the 
Empire. 

Manv  vears  ago,  in  tin  course  of  an  ovi-rland  journey 
from  Peking  to  Shanghai,  the  writer  turned  aside  to  vi^it 
the  tomb  of  Confucius  It  was  an  impressive  spectacle  to 
see  the  heads  of  the  v.irimis  liranclus  into  which  t!ie  clan 
is  divided  performing  their  semi-niontbly  devoti(Mis  be- 
fore the  tablet  of  their  illustrious  ancestor,  ^tany  of  these 
di^cliari^a"  offici.al  ilutir<.  .nid  c.  i  tiiMtc  a  kind  of  j)ric>t- 
hood  in  the  temple  of  the  Sage ;  their  apixnntinunts, 
whether  hereditary  or  otherwise,  are  duly  recorded  in  the 
Red  Book,  or  official  register.  Tlie  cli  (.-f  of  the  trilu-  is 
known  as  Yen  Sliciit^  K'uii};.  the  Duko  of  the  Holy  Suc- 
cession— a  succession  which  is  older  in  generations  than 
most  aged  men  are  in  the  reckoning  of  years.  There 
are  Jewish  families  who  can  hi.a-t  a  longer  pedigree — 
running  back,  perhaps,  lo  the  return  from  captivity,  i;.  c. 
536;  but  where,  out  of  China,  shall  we  lock  for  a  family 
whose  nobilitv  lias  a  historv  of  twenty  centuries!' 

The  first  hereditary  distJiction  was  conferred  on  the 
senior  member  of  the  house  of  K'ung  by  the  founder  of 
the  Han  dynasty,  B.  c.  202.   The  title  was  at  first  the 


THREE  RELIGIONS  OF  CHINA  aoi 


vajfuc  designation  ol  chiin,  prince,  ami  cmiplnl  wiili  tlie 
iliaf^i-  111'  ilu-  aiii;i'>tral  tiinplr.  riii>  wa>  >  xclian^^d  li>r 
tlic  iiiore  (lislinguisliing  title  ul  luni,  iiiannii>,  i)\  unkr 
VVu  Ti.  of  tlie  same  tlynasty.  Tlie  later  Lhou.  a.  u. 
550,  Mili>tiluU(l  llic  tilK-  nf  K'lin^i^.  (liikr  ;  l.iit  in  iIk-  iii  \t 
ilynast},  that  of  Siii,  it  reverieil  to  iuar(jiii>,  and  m)  con- 
tinued through  the  three  centuries  of  the  T'angs.  At  the 
a«'cr-Mnn  of  llie  Sung,  llie  lu  ir  of  ( iiifiu'iu>  was  ai;;iin 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  duke— a  rank  wiiidi  he  has  re- 
tained witliout  material  variation  for  more  than  eight 
centuries. 

In  the  t(ipograi)liical  and  genealogical  histories  we  are 
favored  witli  hiographical  sketches  of  the  individual  links 
in  this  long  chain;  but  through  them  all  there  runs  a 
tluiad  of  ilnary  monotony.  In  cirliir  ages,  the  house 
of  K'uiig  did  indeed  produce  few  men  of  exceptional 
eminence  in  letters  and  in  ptilitics.  They  are  not,  how- 
ever. aU\ay>  found  in  the  line  of  priinoj^ttiilnre.  .'ind.  in 
the  rare  instances  in  which  titled  heads  have  di>iinguished 
themselves,  we  have  to  recognize  the  stimulating  influence 
of  court  life,  from  which  they  wire  tn't  yet  i  xcluded. 

I'ndcr  the  existing  rt-giiiu\  the  succession  i)resenls  us 
no  name  of  note;  a  result  more  due  to  want  of  opjMjr- 
tunity  than  to  any  deterioration  of  race.  for.  according 
to  some  ohscrvcrs,  the  hlood  of  Confucuis  continues  to 
assert  itself  in  the  superior  development  of  his  posterity. 
I5ut  what  are  wc  tu  expect  wluii  ;i  faniil\  rooted  to 
the  soil  of  a  cemetery  hut  that  it  shouUl  become  as  barren 
as  the  cyi)ress  that  overhangs  it? 

The  Dukes  of  K'ung  are  strictly  relegatni  in  the  vicinity 
(if  their  saciT(lot;d  i'li;irge.  aud  are  not  at  liljerty  tn  visit 
the  cai)ital  williuui  exinos  permission  from  the  tl;rone. 

We  recall  the  late  Duke's  application  for  leave  to  pros- 


aoi  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


trail'  liiiiiself  hcforc  lln.  ^ariwj)!i:i);ii^  of  the  Emperor 
Tiin^;  (.'liili.  ix itaiiily  tlic  la>t  ami  |)ruhalily  tlic  lUily  oc- 
casiuii  vn  wlii^li  lie  ivtr  timnil  llic  vNall--  >'i  I'lkiii^;. 

The  family  estate,  it  must  Iw  cunfesscjl,  is  lar>;e  enough 
to  aiiiMtiiin  ,im'  iini>lij\  tlio  nur^'iis  (jf  an 

or  hnar)  mortal,  aiiioiiiiiin^;  ( for  it  is  not  all  i:i  one 
place)  to  an  area  of  not  less  than  i(>5,ooo  acres. 

Ami  as  for  lionor>,  thi'  i-oiinir\  imliKiiian  lia-i  iiiuch 
to  console  him  for  tlie  privations  of  provincial  liit;  the 
(iovernui  of  the  provina-,  it  is  said,  heinjj  required  to 
approach  him  v\iili  tin-  '-a'Mi'  ('•irms  of  liomagc  which  he 
renders  to  tlu'  Son  of  lUavcii.  Xnnurous  offices  of  in- 
ferior «lit,Miit>  are  conferred  on  other  mcmhcrs  of  the 
clan,  constituting  it  a  kind  of  I.i  vitical  orikr;  hut  it  is 
pleasing  to  rem.'rk  that  these  tokens  of  a  nation's  undy- 
inf»  pratitiide  are  not  limited  to  the  lineage  of  Confucius. 
Around  tlie  grand  Inminary  there  moved  a  cluster  of 
sauUites,  which  drank  in  his  beams  and  propagated  his 
light. 

The  chief  of  these  Yen.  Tsing,  .Sze,  Meng,  as  the 
riiinese  conci>clv  call  tltetn.  and  a  few  otiu  is,  continued 
to  he  honored  in  the  same  way,  thongli  not  to  tlic  same 
degree,  as  the  Sage  himself.  Inscparahle  attendants  of 
the  Saj^e,  in  all  his  teni|iK'S.  at  least  one  of  which  o\ists 
in  every  district  ^f  the  Kmpire,  each  of  them  enjoys  the 
honor  of  a  separaio  shrine,  and  some  of  his  posterity  de- 
rive their  suhsisuncj  from  the  charge  of  it.  In  the  city 
of  Chii  Fu,  a  conspicuous  inscription  points  out  the  spot 
where  Yen  ITui,  in  the  midst  of  poverty,  presented  a 
face  ever  radiant  with  joy.  hec.nise  his  soul  was  filled 
vsitli  d.vine  philosophy.  Hard  hy  stands  a  magnificent 
mausoleum  to  the  man  who  never  wrote  a  hook  and  never 
performed  any  great  exi)loit :  Imt  who  embodied  in  his 
own  practice  more  perfectly  than  any  other  the  precepts 


THREE  RELIGIONS  OF  CHINA  aoj 


r>f  his  Mastor.  In  the  atljointnpf  district  of  Tsou  Ilsicn 
stands  a  Id  Mi  iu  iiis,  tile  Si.  I'aiil  of  ( 'iiiil'lUMaiiiMii, 

who,  tIiouj;li  lie  c'littred  tiic  world  tw  late  tu  enjoy  the 
piTsfmal  teachings  of  the  Great  Sage,  did  more  tiran  any 
other  to  g'wv  them  sliupe  and  mrrencv  N'  t  far  away, 
in  the  same  city,  stands  a  somewhat  ilila])iclaii d  ii mi.li  iif 
T'ze  Szc,  the  master  of  Menciiis,  ami  the  ^randsmi  of 
Confucius.  1  liough  in  the  direct  line,  the  Chinese  have 
iKit  liecn  williiig  to  mcTi;e  his  naiiu'  and  fame  in  tlmsf 
of  ills  ancestor;  but  have  taken  effectual  measures  for 
testifying  to  all  generations  their  reverence  for  the  author 
of  the  Cliiiir^  ^         'T  "  <'"!iUi)  Mean." 

The  whole  region  surrountling  the  temple  of  Confucius 
is  dotted  over  by  the  tombs  of  ancient  worthies ;  and  it  is 
touching  to  see  with  what  sacred  care  llieir  descendants 
cherish  the  fire  on  their  altars.  Under  various  designa- 
tions they  have  discharged  these  offices  for  more  than 
seventy,  and  in  one  instance  for  ner.rly  a  hundred,  genera- 
tions; but  their  pie.HUt  titles  tlate  irom  the  Ming  dynasty. 
The  founder  of  the  Mings,  an  unlettered  warrior,  who 
never  rca<l  the  Four  IJooks  until  he  v  s  seated  on  the 
throne  and  had  Liu  Chi  for  a  teacher,  conferred  certain 
honors  on  the  descendants  of  Yen  Hui  and  .Meneius. 
Hi-  successors  ordered  that  representatives  of  fifiten  of 
the  ilisci|ilc>  of  C  nnfiicius  should  he  enrolled  in  tlu-  llanlin 
Collef^e,  and  invested  with  the  office  of  professors  and 
curators  of  the  Five  Classics. 

X'nr  is  it  only  the  (Ireat  .S.n^e  and  his  disciples  who 
enjoy  the  distinction  of  a  memorial  temple,  a  State  ritual, 
and  an  hereditary  priesthood ;  all  these  are  accorded  to  the 
Duke  of  Chou,  wlujiii  Confucius  revered  as  a  master  and 
imitated  as  a  model.  Chou  Rung  died  more  than  five 
hundred  years  before  the  birth  of  Confucius;  but  the 
later  Sage  not  only  professed  to  have  caught  his  inspira- 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


tion  from  the  earlier,  but  in  one  of  his  most  touching 
speeches  he  gave  it  as  a  mark  of  decaying  nature  that 

he  had  "  ceased  to  dream  of  Clioii  Kiiiig." 

It  is  not  surprising,  llierLfore.  that  the  family  of  the 
virtuous  Regent  of  China's  typical  dynasty  should  have 
some  small  part  in  the  cloud  ul  incense  which  China  ofTi  rs 
to  the  pimuH  rs  of  her  civilization.  Their  claim  to  it  was 
ehxiiKiitly  advocated  by  one  of  his  desc.-n<lants  when  the 
Emperor  Kanjj  ll>i  viMted  [hv  -  sacred  soil  of  Lu,"  and 
prnmptly  recognized  ])y  tli.u  <  riliL,diteiied  monarch.  None 
of  these  venerated  shades  is  regarded  as  exercising  a 
tutelar  guardianship  over  the  Empire,  or  over  any  part 
of  it.  Their  temples,  llimigh  vulgar  superstitions  have 
gathered  round  them,  are  essentially  meuu>rial,  and  the 
worship  wholly  commemorative.  It  is  thus  that  China 
has  sought  to  mould  her  cIiiMven  into  one  family  and  to 
secure  the  stability  of  society  by  binding  it  to  the  tradi- 
tions of  the  past. 

The  represinlatives  of  these  families,  as  we  have  said, 
are  a  priesthood  rather  than  a  nobility ;  but  so  closely  are 
the  two  ideas  associated  in  the  Chinese  mind  that  a  writer 
of  these  family  histories  finds  in  ancestral  worship  the 
origin  of  feudal  dignities.  His  philosophy  is  at  fauU ; 
but  it  is  gratifying  to  observe  that,  while  the  feudal  lords 
of  China  have  gone  under  in  the  struggle  for  existence, 
the  only  vestiges  of  the  oicirut  iiohil.ty  (the  secular  are 
all  new)  are  those  which  cluster  round  the  memories  of 
the  wise  and  good. 


XII 


THE  ETHICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OF  THE  CHINESE 

WIDELY  as  the  Chinese  have  departed  from  the 
mcapre  outline  of  a  rchpious  system  left  them 
liy  C  onfucius,  they  liave  fjenerally  adht  icd  to 
his  moral  teachings.  Developed  by  his  followers,  re- 
ceivefl  by  the  suffrages  of  the  whole  people,  and  enforce<! 
by  tl,e  >;mrti'iiis  I'i  tlie  'I'liree  Religions,  the  |)rimip!is 
which  he  inculcated  may  be  said  to  have  mouldeil  the 
social  life  of  nearly  one-third  of  the  b.uman  family.  Tlu  sc 
are  nowhere  to  be  fouml  digested  into  a  scientific  form, 
hut  difi'used  through  the  mingUd  masses  of  pltysics  and 
metaphysics  which  compose  the  llsiii^  Li  Tn  Chiuiii.  En- 
cyclopaedia of  Philosophy,  or  sparkling  in  the  detached 
apothegms  of  "  The  Sages."  Happily  for  our  convenience 
we  have  thent  bnuigiit  to  a  focus  in  the  chart,  a  translation 
of  which  is  given  below. 

Wc  shall  confine  ourselves  to  the  task  of  explaining  this 
important  (iocument,  as  the  best  method  of  exhibiting 
the  system  in  its  practical  influer  'c ;  though  an  independ- 
ent view  might  aflFord  freer  scope  for  discussing  its  prin- 
ciples. 

This  chart  is  anonymous ;  but  the  want  of  a  name  de- 

tracts  nothing  from  its  value.  The  author  has  no  mi-rit 
beyond  the  idea  of  presenting  the  subject  in  a  talml.ir 
view,  aufl  the  pictorial  taste  with  which  he  has  c.\ecute<l 
the  design.  Of  the  ethical  system  so  exhibited  he  origi- 
nated nothing;  and  the  popularity  of  his  work  is  due 

ao5 


2o6 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


mainly  to  the  fact  tliat  it  is  regarded  as  a  faithful  synopsis 

«if  till.'  Confucian  morals. 

The  haif-ilUnninalcil  s])\\vw  pnlixid  lo  the  chait  is  a 
mere  emhelhshnient  havinp;  scarcely  more  connection  with 
ii.^  Milijcct-mattcr  tlian  thr  r.i\al  cnat-'if-arms  stanii)ed 
un  the  title-page  (jf  some  etlitions  has  with  l!)e  contents 
of  Kin^'  James's  Bihle.  It  represents  the  mundane  egg, 
or  mass  of  cliamic  matter,  C(inlainiii,i;  and  Vmr^.  the 
seminal  priiiciijles  from  whose  action  and  reaction  all 
iliin^>  were  evolved. 

Part  f.  is  an  epit.-me  ni  the  Ti>  Hsiich.  tlie  fir>t  nf  the 
four  chief  canonical  hooks  of  the  C'liinese,  and  the  most 
admired  i)roduction  of  tluir  great  philosopher. 

N'oliiminous  as  an  editor,  piously  emhalming  the  relics 
cf  antitiniiv,  ('nnfucins  nccnpies  hut  a  small  space  as  an 
author;  a  slender  citmi)end  nl  history  and  this  little  tract 
of  a  few  himdred  words  heing  the  i!y  original  uoris^ 
which  emanated  from  liis  own  ])cn.  The  latter,  the  title 
(d  which  signifies  the  (ircat  Study."  is  i)rized  so  higldy 
for  the  elegance  of  its  stsle  and  the  depth  of  its  wisdom 
that  it  uia\'  dltcn  he  ^cen  in^rrilu  il  in  letters  of  gold,  and 
suspended  as  an  ornamental  lahUau  in  tlie  mansions  ol 
the  rich.  It  treats  of  the  Practice  of  Virtue  and  the  Art 
(if  (lovernmem;  and  in  the  t'ollowing  '.ahle  these  two 
siil)jects  arc  arranged  in  parallel  columns.  In  tlie  tirst 
we  have  the  lineatnents  of  a  perfect  character  superscrihed 
by  the  word  Siicn,^,.  a  '  ii-!y  Sage,"  the  name  which  th<' 
Chinese  give  to  their  ideal.  In  the  other  we  have  a  cata- 
logue of  the  social  virtues  as  they  spread  in  widening 
circles  througli  the  family,  the  neighliorhood,  tlie  State, 
.-ind  the  wnrM.  Thc-e  are  ranged  under  ll'a>i(^,  the  "  Km- 
]jeror."  who.se  duty  it  is  to  cherish  liiem  in  his  suhjects, 
the  foiv.e  of  example  heing  his  chief  instrument,  and  tlie 
cultivation  of  personal  virtue  his  first  obligation.  The 


ETHICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OF  CHINESE  211 


passage  wliicli  is  luru  aiialy/td,  and  wliicli  constitutes  the 
foundatinn  nf  tlir  wlmk'  trualiM-,  is  tlic  following;: 

■■  1  lidsr  aiK-iciil  piincts  who  desired  to  proniuU'  tlie 
I)ractiLe  of  virtue  throuRliout  the  world  first  took  care  to 
pivi  rn  tlu'ir  own  states,  in  order  t"  tjnvern  tlieir  states, 
tiiev  I'lrst  retaliated  tlieir  own  families,  in  order  to  rejjii- 
lato  their  fainilies,  they  first  practiced  virtue  in  their  own 
|)ersniis.  In  onlcr  to  the  practice  of  personal  virtue,  they 
first  cultivated  riglit  feeling.  In  order  to  insure  right 
feeling,  they  first  had  sincerity  of  purpose.  In  order  to 
M-cine  M!u<  rit\  of  ])iir])ose,  they  extendeil  their  knowl- 
edge. Knowledge  is  enlarged  hy  inquiring  into  the  na- 
ture of  things." 

Thi-^  converging  series  is  beautiful.  However  widely 
th(  liranches  may  extend,  the  quality  of  their  fruit  is  dc- 
ivninned  hy  the  ci>iinnon  root.  X'irtue  in  the  State  depends 
on  virtue  in  the  family,  that  of  the  family  on  that  of 
the  individual;  :iud  individual  virtue  depends  not  only  on 
right  leelings  aii'l  proper  motives,  but,  as  a  last  condi- 
tion, on  right  knowledge.  Nor  is  there  anything  in  which 
(."onfucins  more  strikingly  exhibits  the  cleamess  of  his 
perceptions  than  in  indicating  the  direction  in  which  this 
indispensable  intelligence  is  to  be  sought — viz.,  in  the 
u.ittuc  of  things;  in  umK  r-t  itiding  the  relations  wliich 
the  individual  sustains  to  .society  and  the  universe.  The 
know  ledge  of  these  is  truth,  conformity  to  them  is  virtue ; 
and  moral  oi)ligations,  ( "onfucius  appears,  with  Dr. 
Sanuiel  Clarke,  to  have  derived  from  a  perception  of  these 
relations,  and  a  sense  of  inherent  fitness  in  the  nature  of 
things.  Just  at  this  ]H)int  we  have  a  notable  hiatus.  The 
editor  tells  us  the  chai)ter  on  the  "  Study  of  Nature  "  is 
wanting;  and  C  hinese  scholars  have  never  ceased  to  de- 
plore its  loss. 

But  whatever  of  value  to  the  student  of  virtue  It  may 


212 


I  HE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


have  contained,  it  itrtainly  did  not  contain  the  "  begin - 
ninj^  of  wi'-ilnin."  I'or  skilfully  as  (  (Hifniiiis  liad  woven 
the  chain  of  luiniaii  iclati' in^Iiips,  lie  failed  to  conned  the 
last  link  with  Heaven  to  point  out  the  highest  c.ass  of 
our  nlatii'iis.  Xnt  cnlx.  ilirri'fnre.  i>  uwv  i;rand  'livision 
of  our  duties  a  blank  in  his  s_\steui.  hut  it  is  destitute 
of  that  hif^IuT  light  and  those  stronger  motives  which 
an-  iun--siry  to  stimulate  to  the  performance  of  the  most 
familiar  otiices. 

A  young  mandarin  who  once  said  to  me,  in  answer  to 
a  (|Ur>-i  iwii  a>  tM  his  i  'lijrct  in  li fe,  that  '  he  was  desin ms  of 
jierfi 'lining  all  his  duties  to  tiod  and  man,"  was  nut 
speaking  in  the  language  of  the  Confucian  school.  lie 
had  heen  taught  in  a  mission  sclmul  anil  discovered  a  new 
world  in  our  moral  relations  which  was  unknown  to  the 
ancient  phi'csMplior. 

The  priiu'ip;d  ic  l  lii^  ns  of  the  indi\  idu;il  to  society  are 
copiously  illustr.iied  in  this  and  the  other  classics,  'i'hev 
are  fivt^— the  ^^nrrniiiit'iitnl.  f^arcHlul.  (•('//y'lj.t;*//.  fralrr)tal. 
and  that  of  friciidshi['.  Tlu'  first  is  the  c<imprehensive 
siihji'Ct  of  the  tre;itisr:  .and  in  tlu'  si'Cotid  cnluiiin  of  the 
chart  all  the  others  are  placed  suhnrdinate  to  it.  Tin- 
last  cotnprehcnds  the  ]irincii)les  which  regtilatc  general 
inlerci  lurse.  ('"ii  jugal  fid:!ily.  in  the  sense  of  chastitv. 
is  made  oliiigatnry  only  on  the  female.  Ihatcnuil  duty 
requires  a  rigid  subordination,  according  to  the  gradation 
of  age.  whii  h  i--  aided  liy  a  peculiarity  of  language;  each 
elder  brother  being  called  hsiiDti^,  and  each  younger  ii;  no 
common  rlesignation,  like  that  of  "  brother,"  placing  them 
"W  cijiKil  i  iiting.  Tlii^  ,irra!i,;enu!it  in  the  family  Con- 
fucius pronounces  a  discipline,  in  which  respect  is  taught 
for  superiors  in  civil  life;  and  filial  piety,  he  adds,  is  a 
sentiment  which  a  son  wlio  has  imbilK'd  it  at  home  will 
carry  into  the  service  of  his  prince. 


ETHICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OF  CHINESE  aij 


Nothing,  in  fact,  is  more  characteristic  of  Chinese  so- 
ciety tlian  th(.'  scope  ^iviii  t<i  filial  pin>  liittiisitiid  into 
a  religious  seiuiineiit  hy  tlic  wurslii])  which  he  rentiers  to 
his  ancestors,  it  lca('  ;  il'.e  dtitifiil  son  to  live  and  act  in  all 
situations  with  refeniice  to  his  parents.  He  seeks  repu- 
tation for  the  sake  of  relUrtint;  honor  upon  them,  and 
(h  eads  (liss.;race  ehietly  throng;!!  fear  of  bringing  reproach 
nil  ihi  ir  name.  An  niikindness  to  a  relative  is  a  sin 
a,i;ainst  tiinn,  in  t'orgetting  the  ties  of  a  common  ancestry; 
and  even  a  violation  of  the  law  derives  its  tur])itiide 
from  exposinjsf  the  parents  of  the  otTender  to  suffer  with 
him,  in  person  or  in  reputation,  it  is  thus  analogous  in 
the  universality  of  its  application  to  the  incentive  which 
the  Christian  derives  from  his  relation  to  the  "  Father 
of  spirits;"  and  if  inferior  in  i;s  effiraey,  it  is  yet  tar 
mure  efhcaciuus  than  any  which  a  pagan  religion  is 
capable  of  sn])plying.  Its  various  l»earings  are  beautifully 
trai  l  (1  1)\-  ('oniiK'ius  in  a  discourse  which  constitutes  one 
of  the  favorite  te\l-books  in  the  schools  of  C  hina. 

It  is  not  the  lMH)k,  !)nt  the  art  of  governing  thus  founded 
(in  the  practice  of  virtue,  that  is  emphatically  denomi- 
nated the  "  Great  Stii  '  ;  "  and  this  designation,  express- 
ing, as  it  does,  the  juili^iiient  of  one  from  whose  authority 
there  is  no  ap-peal,  has  contril.utid  to  give  ethics  a  de- 
ciiled  preponderance  among  the  studies  of  the  Chinese. 
Other  sciences,  in  their  estimation,  may  he  interesting  as 
sources  of  intellectual  diversion  or  useful  in  a  suhonlin.ite 
degree,  as  promotive  of  material  ])rosperity  ;  but  this  is 
the  science,  whose  knowledge  is  wisilom,  whose  practice 
is  virtue,  whose  result  is  happiness.  In  the  literary  ex- 
aminations, the  grand  object  of  which  is  the  selection  of 
men  who  are  qualitied  for  the  service  of  the  government, 
an  acquaintance  with  subjects  of  this  kind  contributes 
more  to  official  promotion  than  all  other  intellectual  ac- 


214 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


HuirtiiKnts ;  and  w  lun  tlic  aspirant  fi)r  lionors  has  rcaclicil 
tlu'  summit  of  the  scale,  and  become  a  member  of  the 
I'rivv  l'(nnicil  .ir  I'rrsniiT  ol'  tlu-  he  ricrivis  no 

higlicr  appellation  than  that  of  I \i  llsiu  li  Shili — a  Doctor 
of  the  Great  Study,  an  ade|)t  in  the  art  of  ("lovernment. 

The  I'liinese  ICmpire  has  never  realized  llu  I  t.'iiia  of 
(  niifiu  iiis ;  but  bis  maxims  have  intliieiiced  its  policy  to 
such  an  extent  that  in  I  he  arrangements  of  the  govern- 
ment a  marked  preference  is  given  to  moral  over  material 

interests.  llldeeil,  it  wnnld  be  bard  to  overestimate  tlu- 
inliuence  which  has  been  exerted  by  thi>  little  schedule  of 
political  ethics,  occupying,  as  it  has,  so  prominent  a  place 
in  the  riiinesi'  mind  for  four-and-twent \  eemurii's  — 
teaching  the  jieejple  'egard  the  Empire  as  a  vast  fannly, 
and  the  Emperor  t'  ,ie  by  moral  influence,  making  the 
goal  of  his  ambition  \\>>t  t!ie  wealth,  but  the  virtue,  of  his 
subjects.  It  is  certain  that  the  doctrines  which  it  ein- 
Ixidies  have  been  largely  efficient  in  rendering  China  what 
she  is,  the  most  ancient  and  the  most  populous  of  exist- 
ing nations. 

Part  U.  is  chiefly  ii:  resting  for  the  views  it  presents 
of  the  condition  of  human  nature.  It  is  not,  as  its  title 
would  seem  to  indicate,  a  map  of  the  moral  faculties;  but 
sinii)ly  a  delineation  of  the  two  ways  which  invite  the 
footsteps  of  every  human  pil<^rim.  ( )n  the  one  hand 
are  traced  the  virtues  that  conduct  to  happiness:  on  the 
other  the  vices  that  lead  to  misery.  Over  the  former  is 
written  Tao  Hsin,  "  Wisdom  Heart,"  and  over  the  latter, 
./I'li  Hsin.  "  lltniian  Hi  art,"  as  descriptive  of  the  disposi- 
tions from  which  they  respectively  proceed. 

These  terms,  with  the  two  sentences  of  the  chart  in 
which  tbev  occur,  orii;inaled  in  the  Slut  h'iiii;.  one  of  the 
oldest  of  the  sacred  bixjks,  and  are  there  ascribed  to  the 
Emperor  Shun,  who  filled  the  throne  about  b.  c.  2100. 


ETHICAL  PHILOSOPH''   OF  CHINESE  ais 


OuaiiU  .111(1  ill  (lelint'tl,  llu_\  luivi-  lain  nlaiiKil  in  u>l' 
throMKh  this  lonp  jwriod  as  a  simple  fxpn-ssion  for  an 

tnilli,  rcrnrdiii^  ;is  tlir  rcMiIt  a  iKili^n's  i-\ 
imuiKc  lliat  ■■  to  i-rr  is  luiiMan."  riiiy  cwiuaiii  iid  iiict- 
(ii''tinctinn  as  to  the  extent  to  which  our  nature  is  infected 
uilli  (Nil;  hnl  itilini.'itr  that  it-~  m-ral  r.  .H'lilimi  is  siu-li 
that  the  vvuril  liuinan  niay  fairly  In-  placeil  in  antithesis 
to  wisdom  and  virtue. 

N  i  t  the  jirt  \  ailiiii,^  vii'w  nf  liiiiii.in  iiatmc  niaint.iim  il  by 
I  liiiirsi-  rtliical  writers  is  thai  of  its  radical  j^iMxIness. 
Thouf^h  less  ancient  than  the  ntlur,  litis  latter  is  by  no 
means  a  iiUMlein  dpinidii;  ami  it  is  n  n  a  little  remarkable 
that  some  of  those  (|iiestions  wliieh  ai^ntated  tin  Christian 
Church  in  the  fifth  century  were  diseii>sed  in  China  nearly 
a  tliDUsand  years  before.  They  weie  not  broached  by 
(  "iifii.  ins.  ]  lis  genius  was  ti'.i  in(|ui^iiivc  ;  lie  was  rather 
an  architect  seeking;  to  coiistiiiet  a  iiolile  edifice,  than  a 
chemist  testing  his  materials  by  minut?-  analysis.  And  if 
nolle  are  philosophers  but  those  who  I'ollow  the  clew  of 
truth  through  the  mazes  of  psycholugical  and  metaphysical 
speculation,  then  he  has  no  right  to  the  title;  but  if  one 
who  loves  wisdom,  ptrreivinfj  it  liy  intuition  and  recom- 
mending it  with  autiiority,  be  a  i)hilosophcr.  there  are 
few  on  the  roll  of  time  who  deserve  a  higher  position, 
lie  was.  .as  Sir  J.  M;i<'kiiito^li  sa\^  of  Socrates,  "much 
more  a  teacher  of  virtue,  than  even  a  searcher  after 
truth." 

The  next  age.  however,  was  characterized  by  a  spirit  of 
investigation  which  was  due  to  his  influence  only  as  the 
intellectual  impulse  which  he  communicated  set  it  to  think- 
ing;. The  moral  quality  of  human  nature  became  a  prin- 
ci])al  subject  of  discussion;  and  evry  posirjdn  adiiiittel 
by  the  subject  was  successively  occupied  li\  sonie  leading 
mind.    Tz'e  Sze,  the  grandson  of  the  Sage,  advanced  a 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


theory  which  iniplicti  t!«e  Roo<lness  of  human  nature  ;  but 
Mencius,  his  diMipU'  i  ii.  >  ,  .^17).  was  ilic  lirvt  \\lii>  <li> 
tinolly  enuiii-iatcil  llu'  ilciciriiu-.  Kani/i.  i.uc  ul  liis 
contenipnrarit  s,  niainlaint  d  that  nature  is  destitute  of  anv 
111.. rat  liiidiiKA,  and  uli.illv  pa^^ivA-  iiiuli  r  llu'  |itaslii-  liaiid 
uf  iducalion.  A  disciissiini  arnsi'  iKtwirii  iliiiii,  a  fraj;- 
nunt  t)f  wliich,  prosirved  in  ilie  works  i>t'  Mencius,  will 
servi  to  I  \liiliit  iluir  mode  uf  disiujtation,  as  well  as  the 
pu-iti.  11  III  till'  parties. 

■■  Xaiiiu  .  "  vaid  Ka^tze.  "  is  a  stick  of  timlitT.  and  j;ot)d- 
ness  is  the  v,  -.  !  ih.ii  w  l  aiv.  d  nit  <>f  il." 

"  The  w  1. 11       1,  "  riplii  il  Mi  iiriiis,  "  i-.  nut  a  natural 

priiiliKl  ol'  till'  Iniilirr;  Init  ibc  tru'  niiuins  In  hf  tW- 
stroyed  in  order  to  pnxluce  it.  is  it  nmssary  to  destroy 
man's  nainri'  in  nnlcr  to  iiiakt'  Iiiiii  ,u"mm1.- 

"  'riuii.'"  sail!  Kaoi/i-.  varvmi^  ills  illu^lratic .11,  "  liuuiaii 
nature  may  be  comi)ared  with  a  stream  of  water.  UiMjn 
a  sluikc  t.i  tlif  lasi,  ;ind  it  (lows  to  tin-  cast;  ..pni  nne 
to  tile  west,  it  llows  to  the  westward,  luiualiy  indiltirenl 
is  human  nature  with  rry;ard  to  Rood  and  evil." 

"Water,"  rijniiud  XKiu-iiis,  "is  indilTtrmt  as  ti>  tl'' 
east  or  the  west;  but  has  il  no  choice  between  iiji  and 
down?  Now  human  nature  inclines  to  f^ixKl,  as  water 
does  to  run  downward.  The  evil  it  does  is  the  elTect  of 
interference,  iust  as  water  may  be  forced  to  run  up  hill. 
Man,"  he  repeats,  with  rhetoric  slijrhtly  at  varian.  e  with 
his  philosophy,  "inclines  tn  virtue,  as  water  1!  i  -  1  > 
flow  downward,  or  as  the  wild  beast  does  to  seek  the 
forest." 

A  few  years  later,  Hsiintze,  an  acute  and  powerful 

writer,  took  the  protind  human  .latnre  is  (.  vil.  Tlu' 
influence  of  educalion  be  ^xlotled  in  even  lii,L;lier  terms 
than  Kaotzc.  maintaininjj  that  whatever  good  it  pro- 
duces, it  achieves  by  a  triumph  over  nature,  which  is 


ETHICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OF  CHINESE  ai; 


taught  til  yii'lil  olu'ilii  lu  <■  Id  tile  ilictato  oi  jirudt'iice. 
\  iriuc  i^  I  lie  -.Idu  risiill  <>>  ti  ;ii-liing.  and  vicf  tht  ^K^n' 
tani'iius  null  i.f  ni-glccU'd  uatuif. 

Yangtze,  about  the  commencement  of  the  <  "nriNiian 
era,  eniii'.is  I  ii  I  ,|  t,t  r.)m!iiiii-  iIs'm-  npin    i  ,  racli 

cnntaiJTiil  iiiijii'i t.inl  irutli,  hut  lu  iilu  r  (it  ;.»:  the  wh"l< 
truth.  VVIiilc  human  nature  possi-ssed  l«-nf  (jh-tit  alTer- 
lii'ii^  and  a  i  nn>ii.  iii'c  ,i|i|)riiMii:'  rif  ^.  \\  h.i  liv,, 
j<irvcr.se  desiris  and  a  wdl  that  chusc  tlii.  tvd.  h  was 
therefore  l><>th  liad  and  {;  ><>d;  and  tlio  charact«T  nf  laih 
in(hvi(hial  ti>i>k  its  lor  ';•  ximi.  :s  virtuous  ur  siciou*.  ac- 
cording to  the  class  ot  (jualities  most  cuhivat' 

In  the  great  controversy,  Mciii  m?.  j^aineil  the  i.  :ie 
two  authors  last  naimd  vkto  i>tan.d  ■  ti  the  huii'x  Lxput 
gularius  of  the  litirary  Irilmiial;  and  ihe  aih  -^  ate  of  hu- 
man nature  was  protiKitcd  !  '  the  second  plan  atiiong  the 
oracles  of  the  I'.mpire  for  havin}^  added  a  new  doctrine 
or  (it  vi'li)pi(l  a  latetit  oiif  in  the  i  unfuciaii  -ystem  This 
tt  iiel  is  expressed  in  the  first  line  ni  the  Sun  Tzc  Citing,  an 
elementary  book,  which  is  committed  to  memory  by  every 
schoolboy  ill  China — Jin  chili  ch'ii  li.un  l^nt  slum-  -"  Man 
commences  life  with  a  virtuous  nature"  Uut  notwith- 
standing this  addition  to  the  national  creed,  the  ancient 
aphfjrisiit  of  .S7i!(;i  is  still  held  in  esteem;  and  a  j^enuine 
Confucian,  in  drawitiir  a  genealogical  tree  of  the  vices, 
still  places  the  root  of  evil  in  the  human  heart. 

To  remove  this  i  .  iiti  Klictiin  (  hu  Ilsi,  the  authorized 
expositor  of  the  classics,  devised  a  theory  somewhat  simi- 
lar to  Plato's  account  of  th^  origin  of  evil.  It  evidently 
partakes  of  the  three  princip.il  s\ stems  alxive  referred  to; 
professing,  aeeorditit^  t"  the  hrst,  to  vitulieate  the  original 
goodness  of  huiiiati  nature,  yet  admitliiig,  uith  another, 
that  it  contains  some  elements  of  evil — and  thus  virtually 
symbolizing  with  the  third,  which  represents  it  as  of  a 


2i8  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

mixed  character.  "The  bright  principle  of  virtue."  he 
says  in  his  notes  on  the  Ta  Hsikh,  "  man  derives  from  his 
hcavenlv  origin;  liis  fuirc  spirit,  ulu-n  undarkened,  com- 
nrchcnd's  all  truth,  and  is  ade.iuatc  to  every  occasion. 
Ilut  it  is  obstructed  by  the  physical  constitution  and  be- 
clouded by  the  animal  (lit._  jcn  yii  the  human)  desires, 
so  that  it  becomes  obscure."  _  _ 

The  source  of  virtue,  as  indicated  in  the  chart,  is  /  a,  ho 
-"primordial  haniKmy ; "  and  via>  .s  ascribed  to  the 
iniluen.c  nf  /kw.,-"  gross  matur."  The  moral  char- 
acter is  determine.l  by  tlie  prevailing  influence,  and  man- 
kind are  accordingly  divi.led  into  three  classes,  which 
are  thu.  .k-cribed  in  a  p>.pular  formula:  Men  of  the 
first  class  are  good  without  teaching  ;  those  of  the  second 
may  be  made  good  by  teaching;  and  the  last  wiU  continue 
bad  in  spite  of  teaching. 

The  received  doctrine  in  relation  to  human  nature  does 
not  oppose  such  a  serious  obstacle  as  might  at  first  be 
imagined  to  the  reception  of  Christianity,  though  there 
is  reason  to  fear  that  it  may  tinge  the  complexion  of 
Christian  theology.   The  candid  and  thoughtful  will  rec- 
ognize in  the  Bible  a  complete  view  of  a  subject  which 
their  various  theories  had  only  presented  in  detadied 
fragments.   In  the  state  or  primitive  purity,  it  gives  them 
a  heaven-imparted  nature  in  its  original  perfection  ;  m 
the  supremacv  of  conscience,  it  admits  a  fact  on  which 
they  relv  as  the  main  support  of  their  doctrine;  in  the 
corruption  of  nature,  intro.lnced  by  sin,  it  gives  them  a 
class  of  facts  to  which  '.iieir  consciousness  abundantly 
testifies;  and  in  its  plan  for  the  restoration  of  the  moral 
ruin  it  excites  hope  and  satisfies  reason. 

The  .loctrine  of  Imman  -oo.lness,  though  supported  by 
a  partial  view  of  facts,  seems  rather  to  have  been  sug- 
gested by  views  of  expediency.   Mencius  denounced  the 


ETHICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OF  CHINESE  219 


tenets  of  Kaotze  as  pernicious  to  the  cause  of  morality, 

and  I'.o  no  doulit  coiisidt nd  that  to  convince  men  that 
they  are  enduwcd  with  a  virtuous  nature  is  the  most 
effectual  method  of  encouraging  them  to  the  practice  of 
virtue.  In  the  absence  of  revelation,  there  is  tMiIiiiig 
better.  But  while  faith  in  ourselves  is  a  strong  motive, 
faith  in  God  is  a  stronger  one;  and  while  the  view  that 
man  i.s  endowed  with  a  ncjble  nature,  which  he  only 
needs  to  develop  according  to  its  own  generous  instincts, 
is  sublime,  there  is  yet  one  which  is  more  sublime — viz., 
that  while  fallen  man  is  striving  for  the  recovery  of  his 
divine  original,  he  must  work  with  fear  and  trembling, 
because  it  is  God  that  worketh  in  hini. 

Part  III.,  tlie  Chart  of  Moral  Kxcellence  as  1  have  called 
it  (or.  more  literally,  of  that  which  is  to  be  striven  after 
and  held  to),  presents  us  with  goodness  in  all  its  forms 
known  to  the  Chinese.  It  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  its 
gmiiliiiiL,',  tile  entire  domain  being  divided  into  five  fami- 
lies, each  ranged  under  a  parent  virtue.  The  Greeks  and 
Romans  reckoned  four  cardinal  virtues ;  but  a  difference 
in  the  mode  of  division  implies  no  incompleteness  in  the 
triatment  of  the  subject.  The  Chinese  do  not,  because 
they  count  only  twelve  hours  in  the  day  instead  of  twenty- 
fniir,  prcttrinit  any  pcrtion  of  time;  neither,  when  they 
numlier  twenty-eight  signs  in  the  zodiac,  instead  of 
twelve,  do  they  assign  an  imdue  length  to  the  starry 
girdle  of  the  iuaxens.  The  classification  is  arbitrary; 
and  Cicero  makes  four  virtues  cover  the  whole  ground 
which  the  Chinese  moralist  refers  to  five. 

Hut  while,  in  a  formal  treatise,  definition  and  explana- 
liiiii  may  supply  tlu  defects  of  nontcticlatnre  or  arrange- 
ment, the  terms  employed  for  the  cardinal  virtues,  are 
not  without  effect  on  the  popular  mind.  In  this  respect 
the  Chinese  have  the  advantage.   Theirs  are  Jen,  I,  Li, 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


Chih,  Benevolence,  Justice,  Order  *  Wisdom,  Good 

Faith.  Those  of  Plato  and  Tully  are  Justice,  Pru- 
dence, Fortitude,  and  Temperance.  In  comparing  these, 
I'rudetice  and  Wisdom  may  be  taken  as  identical,  tlumj^li 
the  former  appears  to  be  rather  more  circumscribed  in  its 
splierc  and  tinj^i  d  with  the  idea  of  self-interest.  Tem- 
jierance  and  Ordi  r,  as  exjilained  in  the  respective  systems, 
;ire  iilsn  iilentical — tlie  Latin  term  contemplating  man  as 
an  individual,  and  the  Chinese  regarding  him  as  a  mem- 
ber of  society.  The  former,  Cicero  defines  a?  to  jrpcVov, 
and  a  sense  nf  pro])riety  nr  love  of  order  is  ])recisely  the 
meaning  which  tlie  Chinese  give  to  tlie  latter.  In  the 
European  co<le,  the  prominence  giv«.n  to  Fortitude  is 
characteristic  of  a  martial  peo])le,  among  whom,  at  an 
earlier  period,  under  the  name  of  Aptrij,  it  usurped  the 
entire  realm  of  virtue.  In  the  progress  of  society,  it  was 
compelled  to  yield  the  throne  to  Justice  and  accept  the 
place  of  a  vassal,  both  Greek  and  Latin  moralists  assert- 
ing that  no  degree  of  courage  which  is  not  exerted  in  a 
righteous  cause  is  worthy  of  a  better  appellation  than 
audacity.  They  erred,  therefore,  in  giving  it  the  posi- 
tion of  a  cardinal  virtue,  and  the  Chinese  have  exhibited 
nmre  discrimination  by  placing  it  in  the  retinue  of  Justice. 
Thev  describe  it  by  two  words,  Cliilt  and  Yung.  Con- 
nected with  the  former,  and  e.xplaining  its  idea,  we  read 
the  precept.  "  When  you  fail,  seek  help  in  yourself;  stand 
firm  to  your  post,  and  let  no  vague  desires  draw  you  from 
it.'  Appended  to  the  latter  we  have  the  injunction, 
"  When  you  see  the  right,  do  it ;  when  you  know  a  fault, 

*  Though  politeness  is  the  common  acceptation  of  the  term  as 

expressing  a  regard  for  propriety  in  social  intercourse,  in  Chinese 
ethics  it  has  a  wider  and  higher  signification.  It  is  precisely 
v\li,ii  Mall  t. in  11.  he  makes  the  haMs  of  his  moral  system  and 
denominates  "  the  love  of  universal  order." 


ETHICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OF  CHINESE  aai 


correct  it.  Neither  yield  to  excess,  if  rich,  nor  swerve 
from  right,  if  i)oor."   What  a  noble  conception  of  moral 

courage,  of  true  fortitude! 

Benevolence  and  good  faith  which  are  quite  subordinate 
in  the  heathen  systems  of  tlie  West,  in  that  of  China 
are  each  promoted  to  tlie  leadersliip  of  a  grand  division. 
In  fact,  the  whole  tone  of  the  Chinese  morals,  as  exhibited 
in  the  names  anil  order  of  their  cardinal  virtues,  is  con- 
sonant with  the  si)irit  of  Christianity.*  Benevolence  leads 
the  way  in  prompting  to  positive  efforts  for  the  good  of 
others;  justice  follows,  to  regulate  its  exercise;  w'sdom 
sheds  lier  Iij,dit  over  both ;  good  faith  imparts  the  stability 
necessary  to  success ;  order,  or  a  sense  of  propriety,  by 
bringing  the  whole  conduct  into  harmony  with  the  fit- 
ness of  tilings,  completes  the  radiant  circle;  and  he  whose 
character  is  adorned  with  all  these  qualities  may  be  safely 
pronounced  totus  teres  atqtte  rotundus. 

The  theory  of  moral  sentiments  early  engaged  the  at- 
tention of  Chinese  philosophers,  and  particularly  the  in- 
quiry as  to  the  origin  and  nature  of  our  benevolent  affec- 
tions.   Some,  like  Locke  and  Paley,  regarded  them  as 

*  Cicero  thus  argiifs  th.it  there  could  be  no  occasion  for  the 
exercise  of  any  virtue  in  a  state  of  perfect  blessedness,  taking  up 
the  cardinal  virtues  serialim:  "  Si  nobis,  cum  ex  hac  vita  niigra- 
rcmus,  in  bcatorum  insults,  ut  fabula;  fcrunt,  immortale  xvum 
degere  Jiceret,  quid  opus  esset  eloquentia,  cum  jiidicia  nulla 
fierent?  aut  ifsis  etiam  virtutibuf  Nec  enim  forlitudine  indi- 
geremus,  nullo  proposito  aut  labore  aut  periculo;  iirr  justilia.  cum 
esset  nihil  quoii  apptteretiir  alieni ;  nec  triiifrrantHi.  qu.e  reKeret 
ea^  qu.T  nulliC  essent  libidines;  nc  fiudi  tUra  qniikin  egeieinus, 
luillo  proposito  delectu  bonomtn  et  malornm.  Una  igitiir  essenins 
I)eati  cognitione  rcrum  et  scientia."  He  has  failed  to  conceive, 
as  Sir  J.  Mackintosh  well  suggests,  that  there  would  still  be  room 
for  the  exercise  of  love — of  benevolence.  A  Chinese,  edm  attd  \n 
regard  benevolence  as  the  prime  virtue  of  life,  would  naturally 
give  it  the  first  place  in  his  ideal  of  the  future  state. 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


wholly  ariificial— the  work  of  education.  Others,  like 
Ilobbes  and  Mandeville,  represented  them  as  spontaneous 
and  natural,  but  still  no  uu>rc  tluiii  varied  phasi'S  of  that 
one  ubiquitous  I'roteus— self-love.  Mencius,  with  Bishop 
Butler,  views  them  as  disinterested  and  original.  To 
establish  this,  he  resorts  to  bis  favoriu  luoiW  of  reasoning, 
anil  supposes  the  case  of  a  spectator  moved  by  the  mis- 
foriunc  of  a  child  falling  into  a  well.  Hobbes  would  have 
described  the  pity  of  the  beholder  as  the  fruit  of  self-love 
acting  thnjugli  the  imagination — the  "  fiction  of  future 
calamity  to  hiniseli."  Mencius  says  his  efforts  to  rescue 
the  child  would  be  incited,  not  by  a  desire  to  secure  the 
friendship  of  its  iiannts  or  the  praise  of  his  neighbors, 
nor  even  to  relieve  himself  from  the  pain  occasioned  by 
the  cries  of  the  child,  but  by  a  spontaneous  feeling  which 
pities  distress  and  seeks  to  alleviate  it. 

The  man  who  thus  vindicates  our  nature  from  the 
charge  of  selfishness  in  its  best  affections  sometimes  ex- 
patiates on  their  soei.d  utility,  lli'  does  so,  however,  only 
to  repress  utilitarianism  of  a  more  sordid  type.  When 
the  Prince  of  Liang  incjuired  what  he  had  brought  to 
enrich  his  kin.i^dom,  "  N'othiuLr,"  he  niilied,  •'hut  benevo- 
lence and  justice;"  and  he  th.en  proceeded  to  show,  with 
eloquent  earnestness,  how  the  pursuit  of  wealth  would 
tend  to  anarchy,  while  that  of  virtue  would  insure  happi- 
ness and  peace.  An  -arlier  writer,  Mf.tze,  made  the 
principle  of  benevolence  the  root  of  all  the  virtues;  and 
in  advocating  the  duty  of  t-(jual  and  universal  love,  he 
seems  to  luive  auticipitt'd  the  fundamental  maxim  of 
Jonathan  Edwards  that  virtue  consists  in  Icnr  to  being 
as  such,  and  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  being.  This 
led  him  to  utter  tlio  tloMc  sentitr.ent  tliat  he  w<  iild  "  sub- 
mit his  body  to  be  ground  to  powder  if  by  so  doing  he 
could  benefit  mankind." 


ETHICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OF  CHINESE  223 


The  doctrine  nf  Miitzc  is  rejected  by  the  moralists 
of  tile  estal>lislied  seliuol  as  lu  clical,  on  the  ground  of  its 
inconsistency  witli  the  exercise  in  due  degree  of  the  rela- 
tive aflfections,  such  as  fiUal  piety,  fraternal  love,  etc. 
They  adopted  a  more  cautions  criterion  of  virtue — that 
of  the  moderate  exercise  of  all  the  natural  faculties. 
yirttts  est  medium  vitiornm  et  utrinque  reductum  is  with 
them  a  familiar  principle.  One  of  the  Four  Books,  the 
CliHii^  ytiiig,  is  founded  on  it.  But  instead  of  treating 
the  siiuject  with  the  analytic  accuracy  with  which  it  is 
elaborated  by  Ari^tKlle  in  liis  Niconiacliean  Ethics,  the 
author  kindles  with  the  idea  of  absolute  perfection,  and 
indites  a  sublime  rhapsody  on  the  character  of  him  who 
holds  on  his  way.  undeviating  and  unimpeded,  between 
n  twofold  phalanx  of  opposing  vices. 

I'art  is  the  counterpart  of  the  preceding,  and  is  in- 
teresting mainly  on  account  of  th<'  use  for  which  it  is 
designed  The  whole  chart  is  prd  .ical,  and  is  intended, 
the  author  tells  us,  to  be  susi)Lnded  in  the  chamber  of  the 
student  as  a  constant  monitor.  The  terms  in  which  he 
states  this  contain  an  allusion  to  a  sentiment  cngraviMl 
by  one  of  the  ancient  emperors  on  his  wash-basin .  "  Let 
my  heart  be  daily  cleansed  and  renewed,  let  it  be  kept 
clean  and  new  forever."  This  part  of  his  work  has  for 
its  special  object  to  aid  the  reader  in  detecting  the  moral 
impurities  that  may  have  attached  themselves  to  his  char- 
acter, and  carrying  forward  a  process  of  daily  and  con- 
stant improvement. 

To  some  it  may  be  a  matter  of  surprise  to  find  this 
exercise  at  all  in  vogue  in  a  country  where  a  divine  re- 
li^idti  has  not  imparted  the  highest  degree  of  earnest- 
ness in  the  pursuit  of  virtue.  The  number  who  practise 
it  is  not  large:  but  even  in  pagan  Cliina.  the  thorn\  I'atb 
of  self-knowledge  exhibits  "  here  and  there  a  traveller." 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


TsciiK  Futze.  an  eminent  disciple  of  Confucius,  and 
the  Xenophon  of  his  Memorabilia,  thus  describes  his  own 
practice :  "  I  every  day  examine  myself  on  three  points, 
in  exertions  on  l)chalf  of  others,  have  I  been  unfaithful? 
In  intercour.-c  uiih  ..ilnrs,  have  I  been  untrue?  The 
instruction  1  have  heard,  have  I  made  my  own?" 

An  example  s.i  revered  could  not  remain  without  imi- 
tators. Whctlier  any  of  them  lias  surpassed  the  model 
is  'louhlful:  Init  his  "three  pdiut^"  they  have  multiplied 
into  the  bristling  array  liisplayed  in  the  chart,  which  they 
daily  press  in  to  their  bosoms,  as  some  papal  ascetics 
were  wont  to  do  their  jaj;f:ed  belts.  Some  of  them,  in 
order  to  secure  greater  lidelity  in  this  unpleasant  duty, 
are  accustomed  to  perform  it  in  the  family  temple,  where 
they  imagine  their  lieai!'-  laid  hare  to  the  view  of  their 
ancestors,  and  derive  encouragement  from  their  supposed 
approval.  Tlie  practice  is  a  beautiful  one,  but  it  indicates 
a  want.  It  shows  that  human  virtue  is  conscious  of  her 
weakness ;  and  in  climbing  the  roughest  steeps  feels  com- 
pelled to  lean  on  the  arm  of  religion. 

In  a  few  cases  this  impressive  form  of  domestic  piety 
may  prove  efficacious ;  but  the  benefit  is  due  to  a  figment 
of  the  imagirialion  siinilar  to  that  which  Epictetus  recom- 
mends when  he  sug^^'sts  that  the  student  of  virtue  shall 
conceive  himself  to  he  living  in  the  presence  of  Socrates. 
If  fancy  is  thus  operative,  how  much  more  effectual  must 
faith  be — ^that  faith  which  rises  into  knowledge  and  makes 
one  realize  that  he  is  acting  under  the  eye  of  ever-present 
Deity ! 

It  is  one  of  the  glories  of  Christianity  that  by  diffusing 
this  sentiment  she  h:i~  made  virtue  not  an  occasional  visitor 
to  our  planet,  but  brought  her  down  to  dwell  iamiliarly 
with  men.  What  otherwise  would  have  been  only  the 
severe  discipline  of  a  few  philosophers,  she  has  made  the 


ETHICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OF  CHINESE  225 


daily  habit  of  myriads.*  How  many  persons  in  how 
many  lands  now  ciij>c  t  ach  day  of  life  by  comparing  every 
Item  of  their  cun<luct  with  a  far  more  perfect  "  chart  for 
self -examination  "  than  our  author  has  furnislieiPf 

Xe\t  to  tiie  knowledge  of  right  and  wrong  Confucius 
placed  "  sincerity  of  purpose  "  in  ])ursuiiig  the  rigiit,  as 
an  essential  in  the  practice  of  virtue ;  but  as  he  expressed 
only  tlie  vatjuest  notions  of  a  Supreme  Being,  and  en- 
joined for  jHipular  observance  no  iiigher  form  of  religion 
tiian  the  worship  ut  tiie  ancestral  manes,  a  sense  of  re- 
sponsibility, and,  by  consequence,  "  sincerity  of  purpose," 
are  s:idl_\  defu-ient  among  his  disciples.  Some  of  the 
more  earnest,  on  meeting  with  a  religion  which  reveals 
to  them  a  heart-searching  God.  a  sin-atoning  Saviour,  a 
soul-sanctifying  Spirit,  and  an  immortality  of  bliss,  have 
joyfully  embraced  it,  confessing  that  they  find  therein 
motives  and  supports  of  which  their  own  system  is  wholly 
destitute. 

GENERAL  INFEREKCES. 

On  this  sheet  (the  chart  above  translated)  we  have  a 

projection  of  the  national  mind.  It  indie,  tes  the  high 
grade  in  the  scale  of  civilization  attained  by  the  people 
among  whom  it  originated,  exhibiting  all  the  elements  of 
an  elaborate  morality.  Political  ethics  are  skilfully  con- 
nected with  private  morals ;  and  the  virtues  and  vices  are 

*  Rcligi'>n,"  says  Sir  James  Mackintosh,  speaking  of  Plato, 
"had  not  ihcn,  besides  her  own  discoveries,  brought  down  the 
most  awful  an:I  lln-  iikim  hcantiiiil  forms  of  moral  truth  to  the 
htimhicsl  station  in  linninn  siiciety." 

t  There  are  many  evening  hymns  in  which  the  review  of  the 
day  is  beautifully  and  touchingly  expressed,  but  in  none  perhaps 
better  than  in  that  of  Gellert  commencing  "  Ein  tag  isl  uicdcr 
kin." 


826  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

marshalk-d  in  a  vast  array,  wl.ich  required  an  advanced 
state  of  society  for  their  development. 

TIk'  accuracy  witli  wliicli  thcst-  various  traits  of  char- 
acter are  noted  implies  the  same  thins:  aiul  tlic  correct- 
ness of  the  moral  judpfments  here  recorded  infers  some- 
thing more  than  culture— it  discloses  a  };rau(l  fact  of  our 
nature,  tliat,  wlialevcr  may  be  thought  of  innate  ideas, 
it  contains  inherent  principles  which  produce  the  same 
fruits  in  all  climates. 

These  tahles  indicate,  at  the  same  time,  that  tlie  Chinese 
have  made  less  imjficiency  in  the  study  of  mind  than  in 
that  of  morals.    This  is  evident  from  s"ine  confusion 
(more  ohscrv.d.le  in  the  original  than  in  the  translation) 
of  faculties,  sentiments,  and  actions.   The  system  is,  on 
the  whole,  pretty  well  arranged;  but  there  are  errors  and 
omissions  enough  to  show  that  their  ethics,  like  their 
physics,  are  merely  the  records  of  phenomena  which 
they  observe  ab  extra  without  investigating  their  causes 
an(l  relations.    While  they  expatiate  on  the  virtues,  they 
make  but  little  in(iuiry  into  the  nature  of  virtue ;  while 
insisting  on  various  duties,  they  never  discuss  the  ground 
of  obligation  :  and  while  duties  are  copiously  expounded, 
not  a  word  is  said  on  the  subject  of  rights. 

The  combinefl  influence  of  an  idolatrous  religion  and  a 
despotic  government,  under  which  there  can  he  no  such 
motto  as  Dicu  ct  vwn  droit,  may  account  for  this  latter 
deficiency.  I'.ut  similar  lacunae  are  traceable  in  so  many 
directions  that  we  are  compclied  t..  seek  their  exiilana- 
tion  in  a  subjective  cause— in  some  peculiarity  uf  the 

Chinese  mind. 

They  have,  for  instance,  no  system  of  psychology, 
and  the  only  rude  attempt  at  the  formation  of  one  con- 
sists in  an  enumeration  of  the  organs  of  perception.  These 
they  express  as  wu  kuati,  the  "  five  senses."   But  what 


ETHICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OF  CHINESE  127 


are  they  ?  Tlie  eyes,  ears,  nut-c,  mouth ;  and  nol  tlie  skin 
or  nerves,  but  the  heart.  The  sense  of  toiicli,  w  liicli  alone 
possesses  the  jMiwer  of  waking  us  from  tlie  llralima  dream 
of  a  universe  tloaling  in  our  own  brain,  and  convincing 
us  of  the  objective  reality  of  an  external  world,  is 
utterly  ignored;  to  say  nothing  of  the  absurdity  of  class- 
ing the  ■■  hear*  " — the  intellect  ( tor  so  they  intend  the 
word) — with  those  passive  media  of  intelligence.  This 
elementary  elTon  dates  from  the  celehrated  Meiicius; 
and,  perhaiis  for  tiiat  very  reason,  the  mind  of  the  mod- 
ems has  not  advanced  beyond  it,  as  one  of  their  pious 
emperors  abdicated  the  throne  rather  than  be  guilty  of 
reigning  longer  than  his  grandfather. 

Another  instance  of  philosophical  classification  equally 
ancient,  equally  authoritative,  and  equally  absurd,  is  that 
of  the  live  elements.  They  were  given  as  chin,  tnu.  sftui, 
htm,  fit — i.  e..  metal,  wood,  water,  tire,  and  earth.  Now 
not  to  force  this  into  a  disparaging  contrast  with  the  re- 
sults of  our  recent  science,  which  recognizes  nothing  as 
an  element  but  an  ultimate  form  of  matter,  we  may 
fairly  compare  it  with  the  popular  division  of  "  four  ele- 
ments." The  ])niicii)le  of  classification  l)cing  the  enumera- 
tion of  the  leading  forms  of  inorganic  matter  which  enter 
into  the  composition  of  organic  bodies,  the  Chinese  have 
violated  it  by  introducing  wood  into  the  category  ,  and 
they  evince  an  obtusencss  of  observatic.n  utterly  incon- 
sistent with  the  possession  of  philosophic  talent  in  not 
perceiving  the  important  part  which  atmospheric  air  per- 
forms in  the  formation  of  other  bodies.  The  extent  to 
which  they  adhere  to  the  quintal  enumeration  or  classi- 
fication by  "  fives  "  illustrates,  in  a  rather  ludicrous  man- 
ner, tlie  same  want  of  discrimination.  Thus,  while  in 
mind  they  have  the  five  senses,  and  in  matter  the  five 
elements,  in  morals  they  reckon  five  virtues,  in  society 


228  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


five  relations,  in  ahtronuniv  five  planets,  in  etlinoloj^y  five 
races,  in  optics  five  colors,  in  music  five  notes,  in  the 
culinary  art  five  tastes;  and,  nut  to  extend  the  catalogue, 
they  divide  the  liuriztm  into  /h  e  quarters. 

These  instances  evince  a  want  of  analytical  iwwcr;  and 
tlic  ilificieiu')  is  slill  I'uiiIki-  ili-phiS'  i!  Ii\  llir  ali'-elice  of 
any  analysis  of  the  sounds  of  tlieir  lanj;uaj;e  until  they 
were  made  acriuainted  with  the  alphahetical  Sanskrit; 
the  nim-existenee.  to  the  present  day,  of  an\  in(|uiry  into 
the  forms  of  speech  which  might  he  called  a  grammar, 
or  of  any  investigation  of  the  processes  of  reasoning  cor- 
responding with  our  logic,  \\  hiK  tln  \  ii.ue  ■^•^■u•ed  into 
the  attenuated  atniosiilure  uf  nutnln^ieal  speculation, 
they  have  left  all  the  rej^Mtms  of  physical  and  abstract 
science  alnicsl  as  trackless  as  the  arctic  stunvs. 

It  wiiuld  be  supiTlhidUS  to  vindicate  the  Cliinesi'  from 
the  charge  of  mental  inferiority  in  tiie  presence  of  that 
immense  social  and  political  organization  which  has  held 
together  so  many  niillions  of  pi'M])le  fnr  so  many  ibonsands 
of  years,  and  especially  of  numerous  arts,  now  dropping 
their  golden  fruits  into  the  lap  of  our  own  civilization, 
wlinsf  riMits  can  Ik'  traced  tn  the  soil  i  !^  tbat  ancient 
empire.  iUil  a  -irange  ilefect  must  he  admitted  in  the 
national  mind.  We  think,  however,  that  it  is  more  in  its 
develi>i)in(nt  than  in  its  consiiiuticn.  ami  may  be  ac- 
counted for  by  the  intluence  of  edncatii m. 

If  we  include  in  that  term  all  the  influences  tliat  afTcct 
the  mind,  the  first  i)lace  is  due  to  language  ;  ami  a  language 
whose  primary  idea  is  the  representation  of  the  objects 
of  sense,  and  which  is  so  imperfect  a  vehicle  of  abstract 
thought  that  it  is  incapable  of  expressing  by  single  words 
such  ideas  as  space,  quality,  rclition,  etc.,  must  have 
seriously  obstructed  the  exercise  of  the  intellect  in  that 
direction.  A  servile  reverence  for  antiquity  which  makes 


ETHICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OF  CHINESE  itq 


it  sacrilege  to  alter  the  crude  systems  of  tlic  ancietits 
increased  the  difficulty;  and  the  guvLriiniciu  bruught  it 
to  the  last  ilegnr  of  URKT-'vatinn  hy  adniitting.  in  the 
public-service  examinations,  a  very  limited  number  of 
authors,  with  their  exjiositors,  to  whose  opinions  con- 
formity is  iiu-ouraKt  d  l>y  honors,  and  from  whom  dissent 
is  punished  by  disgrace. 

These  fetters  can  only  be  stricken  off  by  the  hand  of 
Cliristiaiiity  ;  ami  ue  are  nnt  extravagant  in  predicting 
that  a  stupendous  intellectual  revolution  will  attend  its 
progress.  Revealing  an  omnipresent  Go<l  as  Lord  of  the 
Conscience  it  will  a-M  a  new  luini>pli(  rc  to  the  world  of 
morals;  stimulating  iiuiuiry  in  the  spirit  of  the  precept 
"  Prove  all  things,  hold  fast  that  which  is  good,"  it  will 
sii!)V(.ri  the  blind  principle  of  deference;  and  perhaps  its 
grandest  achievement  in  the  work  of  mental  emancipa- 
tion may  be  the  superseding  of  the  ancient  iileographic 
language  by  providing  a  medium  better  adapted  to  the 
purposes  of  a  Christian  civilization  It  would  onlv  be 
a  repetition  of  hi>tnric  triumphs  if  some  ui  the  vernacular 
dialects,  raised  from  the  depths  where  they  now  lie  in 
neglect,  and  sbaptil  by  the  forces  which  lunve  litem  to 
the  surface,  should  be  made,  under  the  inlluence  of  a  new 
sunshine,  to  teem  with  the  rich  productions  of  s  new 
literature,  philosophy,  and  science. 


CHINESF 


INSPIRATION  »ji 


mi'**' 


9^ 


232 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


CHINESE  IDEAS  OF  INSPIRATION  233 


fix 


XIII 


CHINESE  IDEAS  OF  INSPIRATION 

Hli  word  "  inspiraiioii,"  as  aijplicd  to  tlif  notions 


of  the  Chinese,  must  be  taken  with  conside'-able 


latitude,  as  cxpnssiuij'  tluMr  coiici'ptinns  of  a 
superlmnian  authority,  wliicli  pervades  and  hes  beliiiid 
their  Sacred  Hooks,  as  the  source  and  basis  of  their  teach- 
ings. 

As  their  Sacred  I'ooks  belong  to  three  leading  schools 
of  religious  thought. — not  to  speak  of  numlK-rless  alloys, 
— it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  views  of  tlu  -r  selmols 
on  the  subject  of  insjiiration  coincide  more  cluseK  tlian 
on  other  matters  in  regard  to  wliieii  lliey  are  in  faet 
widely  divergeiU.  It  is  hardly  possible  that  the  material- 
ism of  the  I'.iiiist.  the  idealism  of  the  I'uddliist.  .unl  tlie 
ethical  Sadduceeism  of  the  Confucianist.  should  hohl 
much  in  common  on  the  subject  of  inspiration.  We  shall 
acci)rdin,i,d\  point  out  the  peeidiar  form  which  the  idea 
of  inspiration  assumes  in  connection  witli  each  of  them. 

While  the  high  social  development  of  the  Chinese,  their 
v;ist  mimliers,  and  tluir  hnvj;  history,  give  value  to  any 
elements  of  their  fundamental  beliefs,  in  order  to  be  of 
interest  to  us,  these  must  be  taken  at  a  date  prior  to 
their  contact  with  Christianity. 


I 


To  begin  with  Taoism: — fndigennus  to  China,  its  root 
idea  is  the  belief  in  the  possibility  i)f  acquiring  a  mastery 

334 


CHINESE  IDEAS  OF  INSPIRATION  235 


over  mattir,  so  as  to  change  its  forms  at  will,  and  thus 
protoft  oiustlvts  ai;ain>i  iKcax  an<l  diath. 

Thusc  who  have  attaiiud  immortahty  constitute  a 
pantheon,  nilinfj  over  the  material  world  and  presitling 
owr  the  distiiiies  of  man.  Material  in  its  origin,  this 
school  gradually  evolved  a  system  of  helief  strikiiigly 
analogous  to  the  so-called  "  spiritualism."  which  not  long 
ago  attracted  so  much  attention  in  our  W'estirn  World. 

instead,  however,  of  holding  that  all  spirits  are  indis- 
criininately  ferried  over  to  the  farther  shore,  it  considers 
that  those  of  the  ])rofane  multitude,  not  heing  sufficiently 
concentrated  to  resist  the  inroads  of  decay,  vanish  into 
air  and  cease  to  be ;  while  a  favored  few,  by  dint  of  per- 
severing effort,  subdue  their  animal  nature,  and  wiave 
its  fibres  into  a  compact  unity  that  defies  destruction.  A 
favorite  analogy  to  illustrate  this  process  is  their  theory 
of  th',.  evolution  of  gold,  which,  as  they  heheve,  originally 
a  base  niet.il,  passes  upward  through  a  succession  of 
forms,  all  liable  to  taniish  or  corrode,  until  it  reaches  a 
state  in  which  its  pertected  essence  remains  forever  un- 
changeable. The  diamond. — a  gem  of  "  ptirest  ray 
serene.'" — smiling  at  the  sharpest  steel,  and  mocking  the 
hottest  fire,  is  another  symbol  frequently  used;  and  it 
might  have  done  much  to  confirm  their  faith  in  this  theory, 
had  their  science  gone  far  enough  to  connect  the  gem 
that  shines  in  immortal  splendor  with  the  fossilized  car- 
bcjn  that  lies  liiddeu  in  the  bosom  of  the  eartli.  or  with 
those  evanescent  forms  of  vitalized  carlion  that  beautify 
its  surface. 

The  b'  )v  few,  as  preciou;  a^^  gold  and  as  rare  as  the 
dian  •  r  ho  attain  to  immortality,  ilo  not  leave  their 
b<Mlie.  .nd  them,  like  ca.st-oflf  clothing;  nor  would 
their  booies  cause  the  boat  of  rharon  to  draw  a  deeper 
draught,  for  the  body  itself  is  transformed  and  becomes 


236  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


a  "  spiritual  body."  with  changed  qualities  and  new 

powers.  Its  (iiialilics  ar<'  ;  .ich  in  j^nioral  as  we  ascrilie  to 
spirit ;  its  powers  are  limited  only  by  the  stage  of  its 
progress. — a  progress  that  rises  from  sphere  to  sphere 
witliom  a  lioiiml. 

Among  the  acquired  powers  of  these  immortals,  one 
which  occupies  a  leading  place  is  that  of  spiritual  mani- 
festation. These  hsicii  jiit,  or  genii,  as  ilu  \  an  ralliil  are 
of  various  grades;  and  all  of  them  are  capable  of  renew- 
ing their  intercourse  with  hnnan  beings,  among  whom 
they  walk  invisible.  It  is  seldom  that  they  re-ai)pear  in 
their  priinitive  shape ;  but  they  frequently  make  their 
presence  felt  through  the  intervention  of  suitable  media. 

A  favorite  niediiiiri  is  the  human  body,  in  a  hypnotic 
condition;  and  through  sucli,  when  properly  invoked,  tiie 
genii  are  wont  to  speak  to  mortals,  as  Apollo  spoke 
through  the  Delphic  Priestess.  Their  oracles  in  such 
cases  relate,  in  genera',  to  the  cure  of  disease,  or  the 
conduct  of  family  affairs.  In  early  times,  they  aspired 
to  the  direction  of  affairs  of  state;  but  the  detection  of 
numero.is  impostures  bmught  them  into  discredit,  and 
their  influence  is  now  restrained  to  a  humbler  sphere, 
though  it  is  still  real,  and  by  no  means  to  be  despised. 

Another  medium  is  ttie  fu  Iini,  an  instruuK'nt  which  we 
may  describe  as  a  magic  pen.  It  consists  of  a  vertical 
stick,  suspended  like  a  pendulum  from  a  cross-bar.  The 
bar  is  supported  at  each  end  hy  a  votary  of  the  genii,  care 
being  taken  that  it  shall  rest  on  the  hand  as  freely  as  an 
oscillating  engine  docs  on  its  bearings.  .\  table  is 
sprinkled  with  meal :  and.  after  being  properly  invoked, 
till  s])irit  man'fcsis  his  presence  liv  sli-rlif  irregular  mo- 
tions of  the  pen  or  pendiiUiiii.  which  leaves  its  trace  in 
the  meal.    These  marks  are  deciphered  by  competent 


CHINESE  IDEAS  OF  INSPIRATION  237 


authorities,  who  make  known  the  response  from  the  spirit 
world. 

This  will  be  recognized  as  an  early  form  of  planchette. 
In  the  Far  East,  't  lias  been  in  vc^e  for  inure  than  a 
tliousand  years;  and  there  is  as  yet  no  sign  that  it  "  has 
had  its  day.  "  Not  merely  Taoists  by  profession,  but 
scholars,  who  call  themselves  Confucian,  believe  in  it  with 
a  more  or  less  confiditij^  faith.  When  tliey  resort  to  it 
with  a  serious  purpose,  they  usually  get  an  answer  which 
they  accept  bona  fide,  whether  it  meet  their  wishes  or 
oppose  them.  C)ften.  however,  they  call  in  the  magic  pen 
to  supply  diversion  for  the  late  hours  of  a  convivial  party ; 
and  in  such  cases,  they  tell  me,  they  are  sometimes  sur- 
prised by  the  result, — an  invisible  person  evidently  join- 
ing the  festive  circle,  and  solving  or  creating  mysteries. 

Skeptical  as  are  the  Qiinese  literati,  no  one  that  I  have 
seen  doubts  the  genuineness  of  some  of  the  communica- 
tions so  obtained.  I  have  had  such  sent  to  me  frtmi  a 
distant  place,  with  the  assurance  that  they  were  obtained 
through  the  magic  pen  at  the  altars  of  the  gods ;  and, 
whatever  I  may  have  thought  on  the  subject,  I  could  not 
doubt  that  the  sender  believed  in  them. 

Where  such  credulity  renders  the  public  mind  as  sus- 
ceptible to  impressions  as  the  meal  doe^  a  .vriting-tablc, 
it  is  obvious  that  revelations  for  the  purpose  of  religious 
instruction  are  to  be  expected.  The  fact  is  that  the  magic 
pen  is  one  of  the  most  prolific  sources  of  religious  litera- 
ture. Mahomet  claimed  that  the  Koran,  was  brought 
leaf  by  leaf  from  Paradise  by  the  angel  Gabriel.  The 
hieropbants  of  China  impos'-  on  the  credulity  of  their 
countrymen,  by  ascribing  their  own  teachings  to  revela- 
tions made  by  planchette. 

Some  of  these  so-called  revdati<Mis  are  deservedly 


2i%  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


popular,  on  account  of  the  beauty  of  their  style  and  the 

t'xctlltnce  (if  tlu  ir  Mihjict  maltcr  ;  and  Mu-s  art  lu'ld  in 
special  rcvcnncc,  as  worthy  txprcssiuns  of  the  uund  u* 
deified  Sapcs. 

To  tins  category  belong: — 

I. — TIh'  Kan  i  ing  I'  icn,  a  treatise  on  retribution,  de- 
rived by  this  methfxl  from  no  less  a  personage  than 
Laoizi.  the  irreat  fuuiulcr  of  the  Taoist  sect. 

_'. —  I'lif  CItiii  li  Sink  Chiir^,  or  wi ■rid- waking  apiieal  of 
Kuan  1  i.  tiiular  j^nd  (if  the  rcigniiii;  dyiiasiy. 

.V — The  Yin  Chi  IVin.  or  Ticxik  of  Rewards  and  f'unish- 
iiK!!!^.  rclcrtcd  td  W  en  Clraii.s;.  tlic  i^nd  df  litt(.TS. 

( 'tilers  might  be  added,  luit  I  forbear  to  cite  them, 
because  they  "  attain  not  to  the  first  three." 

i'lu  last  cited  i>  ascribed  to  W  en  (  li'ang,  the  goil  of 
letters,  a  Taoist  deity  much  in  favor  with  scholars  of  the 
Confucian  School;  for,  wide  apart  as  they  are  in  funda- 
mental principles,  the  dividing  lines  of  the  three  sects  are 
now  well-nigh  obliterated.  Each  borrows  deities  from 
the  other,  and  priests  of  one  are  found  in  charge  of  tem- 
plt  s  that  lieldf.g  u>  the  other; — a  result,  not  so  much  due 
to  rapprochement  in  their  aiuliorized  teachings,  as  to  a 
chronic  confusion  in  the  popular  mind. 

II 

Huddhism,  as  the  stronger  faith,  has  "  drawn  the  cover 

to  its  own  side,"— adii])tin.t;  many  Taoist  usages,  and, 
r.mong  them,  the  jjractice  of  ])rocuring  spiritualistic  reve- 
lations. In  vain  do  the  orthotlox  denounce  it,  as  tending 
to  c'lrntpt  the  cani'ii.  ;uid  as  demtjatory  to  the  diguitv  of 
the  deities  invoked;  the  practice  continues  to  llourish. 

Of  the  extent  to  which  it  is  carried,  you  may  judge 
from  the  following  indignant  protest,  which  I  translate 


CHINESE  IDEAS  OF  INSPIRATION  239 


from  tlie  ffsiii  Chih  Yao  Yen,  a  practical  pii'fl^  for  the 
Btidillii'-l  i)ricstlioi  1(1 : - 

"  In  these  latter  days,  nun's  minds  are  superficial  and 
false.  There  is  nothing  that  they  do  not  counterfeit. 
Even  in  the  disseniination  of  }j;(>(kI  IxKiks,  they  resort  to 
falseiiood  to  aid  their  circulation.  Their  own  rude  Jan- 
guape,  which  has  no  meaning  more  than  skin-deep,  they 
palm  ofT  as  revealed  through  the  magic  pen, — thus  im- 
posing on  the  ignorant. 

"  They  mostly  father  their  effusions  on  Wen  Ch  ang 
and  Lii  Tsu  ;  less  frequently,  on  Kuan  Ti.  Only  think  of 
it: — In  case  of  ordinary  hoolvs  or  pictures,  to  falsify  the 
authorship  is  iield  as  an  odious  crime.  How  much  more 
hateful  the  crime  of  adulterating  the  teachings  of  gocls 
and  sages!  When  book  shelves  arc  loaded  with  f,-iliri«a 
tions,  the  circul.  tion  of  the  genuine  article  is  impeded. 
Instances  of  this  kind  of  outrage  on  Holy  Names  are  too 
frequent  to  enumerate. 

"  Recently  some  cases  of  a  truly  extraordinary  char- 
acter have  come  to  light.  Shameless  forgeries  are  put 
forth  as  hooks  of  Ruddha!  Buddha  himself  is  some- 
times invoked  to  indite  a  commentary,  and  even  Taoist 
genii  are  called  on  to  reveal  an  exposition  of  Buddhist 
classics.  Then  we  have  lists  of  Buddha's  titles,  purport- 
ing to  emanate  from  spirit  revelations.  The  blunders  of 
these  books  go  without  castigation,  and  false) lood  gains 
strength  day  by  day.  Formerly  moral  tracts  were  aids 
to  virtue:  to-day  thev  are  used  to  mislead  ni.iiil.iiid." 

liere  follows  a  list  of  spurious  hooks,  ending  with  the 
remark  that  "  names  of  men  and  places,  though  formed 
on  Sanskrit  l)lod^■l^,  ,ire  so  climisily  eotistruoied  that  iheir 
rough  angles  pierce  through  the  thin  disguise ;  and  the 
more  extended  a  discourse,  the  more  thoroughly  does  the 
fabricator  succeed  in  exposing  his  imposture." 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


To  note  tile  adoi)iinn  of  this  Taoist  practice  by  a  sec- 
tion of  liudilliisni  is  not  foreign  to  our  subject,  because 
it  i'i  tjliiiu^c  in  orii^iii;  hut.  to  ascend  tlie  stream  and 
treat  of  inspiration  from  tlie  stand-point  of  orthodox 
Buddhism  would  lead  us  away  from  China.  It  would 
carry  u-  iiUn  liie  world  of  ilindu  mysticism,  where 
Sakyamuni  laid  the  foundation  of  his  conquering 
creed. 

Suffice  it  to  snv  that,  to  the  I'.uddhist,  there  is  no  form 
of  existence  higher  than  Buddha, — no  authority  above 
that  of  Buddha.  He  does  not  look  beyond  Buddha  to  an 
all-pervading  spirit,  as  C'hri>ti;nis  liH.k  tlipm-h  t'lirist  up 
to  the  Father  of  Spirits.  For  him,  Buddha  is  ultimate ; 
and,  as  the  name  signifies  supreme  intelligence,  so  all 
believers  aceejit  the  utter;uue^  of  lUidilha  as  truth  not 
to  he  called  in  (juestion.  W  ith  them,  the  only  possible 
question  is  that  touching  the  authenticity  of  those  utter- 
ances,—in  oilier  words,  respecting  the  i)roper  contents  of 
the  r>uddlii>tie  canon.  How  much  of  that  canon  fell  from 
the  lips  of  Gautama,  and  how  far  the  teachings  of  his  fol- 
lowers are  deducihle  from  his  firiginal  revelations,  are 
questions  of  serious  import ;  or  rather  they  would  liecrme 
such,  if  once  the  spirit  of  critical  inquiry  were  fairly 
aroused.  If,  among  the  heterc^eneous  materials  com- 
po..itig  the  canon  as  acknowledged  hy  one  or  other  of  the 
schools,  the  spurious  utterances  a.scrib  to  Cuddha  were 
sifted  from  the  genuine,  there  would  remain  but  a  very 
small  'iiduuni.  .\niotit:  his  suhordinates.  the  degree  of 
authority  conceded  to  each  is  decided  according  to  their 
grade  of  intelligence  or  rank  in  the  canonical  hierarchy ; 
but  no  spiritr..:'  influence  emanating  from  a  higher  source 
is  admitted.  This  is  true  of  primitive  or  atheistic  Bud- 
dhism :  hut  in  Buddhism,  as  modified  by  time,  and  by 
contact  with  other  creeds,  we  find  a  superintending  and 


CHINESE  IDEAS  OF  INSPIRATION  241 


enliglitining  iiitlucnce  from  the  spirit  of  Buddha  freely 
acknowledged. 

Ill 

The  ideas  of  Confucianists  in  regard  to  inspiration 
dtfTer  widely  fr<Mn  thtise  of  both  the  preceding  schools. 
Till  y  art  till.-  ideas,  not  of  a  sect,  but  of  the  bulk  of  the 

Chinese  people. 
When  the  three  schools  are  named  in  series,  the  Ju,  or 

Confucian,  stands  at  the  head;  Imt  wlun  the  Confucian 
is  spoken  of  by  itself,  it  is  generally  described  as  ta  chiao, 
— tlie  great,  universal,  or  catholic  school.  Its  tenets  form 
the  bed-ruck  of  C  liim-e  civilization,  whafevtr  may  be  the 
cfimplexion  of  tlu'  vir-lying  soil.  The  yellow  of  Bud- 
dhism ancl  tlu-  black  of  Taoism  may  be  everywhere  de- 
tected, but  they  form  only  a  siijH-rficial  tinge  on  tiie 
original  background.  Kvery  I'.uddliist  or  TaiMst  (outside 
of  the  priesthood)  is,  first  of  all,  a  Confuci,  nist :  but  the 
converse  is  by  no  means  true, — the  more  educated  l  hinese 
in  general  reject  both  the  other  sects,  and  speak  disre- 
si)ectfully  of  their  claims,  though  not  txempt  from  their 
influence.  Hence  a  common  error  in  estimattnf^  the  num- 
Iiei  of  Buddhists  on  the  glob  for.  unlike  Burmah  and 
Siam,  where  Buddhism  is  esi  .i  lished  by  law,  the  intel- 
lectual culture  of  China  flows  apart  from  Buddhism; 
and.  in  China,  the  priesthood  of  Buddha,  with  but  few 
redeeming  exceptions,  have  sunk  lu  the  condition  of  an 
ignorant  and  despised  caste. 

The  canon  of  Confucianism  is,  therefore,  pre-eminently 
the  canon  of  Cliina ;  and,  to  find  what  views  the  Chinese 
hold  as  to  its  inspiration,  we  have  in  the  first  place  to 
turn  to  the  cancm  itself. 


24a 


THK  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


Til  canon  lonsists, — if  wc  reject  the  enumeration  of 
thirtct  n  Iuk  !  ^  as  Ion  wiiic,  ;i'  !  accpt  that  of  nine  as 
iiuirc  i-xact,— ( .1  two  I'la^M  s  «i;  work.s: — tin.-  pre-C<Mifii- 
ciaii,  aiitl  tile  jxist-Confiician.  The  Li  (  hi,  or  "  Book  of 
Iviios,"  is  \  ith  ilk'  f^iniKT,  tli'UiL;'!  i'"n;iiilf(l  iituliT 

tin-  liyiiasty  vi  llan,  iRcausi'  it  professes  to  (Mi^  rvc  tlie 
traditions  of  an  earlier  age.  Meld  in  liiph  esteem,  it  is 
iievi  I  tiu  less  lU  eineil  sntiieu  liru  ai>urr\ p!ial.  '1  !k  ntlu  r 
four  pre-t  unfutian  1khj1<s  w.re  all  edited  by  the  great 
Sage,  .ind  issued  with  his  ittif-rimalur. 

They  contain  sncii  frni,';uenls  ol  antiquity, — historical, 
poetical,  and  plulosophical, — as  he  thought  worth  iwhile 
to  preserve.  Among  them  there  is  not  mttch  of  unity  to 
he  dictrned  "in  nit  nilK-r.  joint,  or  limb;"  and,  as  a 
w  hole,  they  are  not  regarded  as  emanating  from  a  super- 
natural source. 

There  are,  hov.  i  ver,  in  this  iullecticMi,  two  sketches  of 
a  rudinutitary  pliilosupliy,  for  \shi(.li  a  sn])ernatnral  nnfjjin 
is  distinctly  asserted.  ( )ne  ol  these  is  a  table  of  mystic 
symlKils.  from  which  diagrams  of  the  "  Book  of  Changes  " 
v.ere  subse.inently  evolved. 

In  the  '.eign  of  l"u  llsi,  jKoo  u.  t.,  this  was  brought  up 
from  the  waters  of  the  Yellow  River  on  the  back  of  a 
beast,  which  was  "  half  horse  ;iii(|  half  .-iHij^Mtor;  "  si^iiif', 
ing.  if  we  admit  a  grain  of  truth  in  the  legend,  that  the 
fir.st  eight  diagrams,  which  form  the  basis  of  the  sixty- 
four  in  the  "  Hook  of  ('!i,inj^<  -,"  were  sni^r^csted  by  tl;e 
mysterious  markings  on  the  carapace  of  a  tortoise.  That 
the  figures  on  the  shell  of  a  tortoist  were  employetl  in 
divin.ition  is  attested  hy  history.  Princes  ko|>t  >acre<l 
shells  in  temples  erected  for  the  purpose,  and  the  shell 
only  ceased  to  be  consulted,  when  tlic  ampler  book  Ik- 
came  known  .ind  accepted  as  a  treasury  of  divine  oracles. 

The  other  fragment  of  direct  revelation  is  an  outline 


CHINESE  IDEAS  OF  INSPIRATION  243 


of  natural  and  poiittcal  philosopliy  called  the  Huttf^  Pan, 

<!'  "  ( in-iit  I'lnti."  It  is  said  to  Ikuc  lucn  hroTij^lit  ti<  tlu- 
l-iii|K'ri)r  V II,  from  tin  waters  ui  tlic  rivir  Lo.  by  a 
monster  somewhat  simi'.'.'^  to  that  which  figures  in  the 
prcci'ilinf,'  Ict^cnd. 

Both  stunts  wire  inikirscd  by  C  'mfucius,  if  the  Ap- 
pendix to  the  "  l>'X)k  of  Changes  "  be  his  work;  and  the 
hif:licst  >clinlars  of  C  hina  continue  to  receive  them  at 
trur  lu-yond  a  quest itm. 

Lcavinr  the  barbarous  a^e  in  which  tortoise  and  dragon 
are  inoss^.^ers  of  the  gwls,  we  come  to  a  more  rational 
period,  when  man  K-comcs  the  medium  through  which 
the  Will  of  I  leaven  is  revealed.  This  view  is  first  enunci- 
ated III  the  '■  l"K>k  of  ( )des  "  (circa  lom  n.  < . ).  in  a  ]);is- 
sage  whicli  remains  in  use  as  a  popular  formula: — 
"  Heaven,  having'  i.:e  to  men,  .  i  (d  up  princes  to 

rule  them  and  teachers  to  insin  thein," — a  statement 
whii  witb  all  the  liKht  of  our  tk»>  :ifd  Christianity,  it 
is  not  easy  to  improve  ujjoii. 

The  general  conception,  of  '  -  r^rovidentially 
.  isi'd  up,  hecame  at  length  rest.-  lat  of  certain 

eminent  men  who  were  looked  on  as  iaiallible  guides. 
They  were  called  shi-ni^  jcn,  a  phrase  commonly  rcntlered 
"holy  men,"  hut  one  whuli  cNpresse^  wisdon  rather  than 
holiness.  They  were  numerous  in  remote  antitn'.ity. — in- 
ventors of  arts  sharing  the  honor  along  v  "i  he  foun:!!"r« 
of  human  society.  Thus  I'u  Hsi,  who  in  -  icd  marriage, 
was  a  shPi't^  jcn;  Hwang  I'",  who  invented  medicine,  was 
a  shr.ig  ji  " ;  Tsang  Chich,  the  inventor  of  letters,  and  Ta 
Nao,  the  author  of  the  most  ancient  calendar,  nre  also 
venerat-  !  as  shcjii^  jcit.  !r.  Liter  apes,  svudi  pai  itis  of 
wisdom  were  few.  and  their  advent  alv  iys  heralu-  by 
presage  of  an  unmistakable  character. 

The  sage  of  sages  is  Ccmfucius.  He  makes  no  direct 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


claim  to  ins])iralion,  and  always  speaks  nf  liitnxlf  with 
becoming  modesty.  According  to  himself,  there  arc  vir- 
tues to  which  he  has  not  attained,  and  there  is  knowledge 
that  lies  beyond  his  range.  Yet  he  evinces  at  times  a 
suMinu'  consciousness  of  a  i)ccii!iar  mission.  \Vlien  in 
peril.  lie  exclaims:—"  If  it  be  tlic  will  of  Heaven  to  pre- 
serve my  dfxtrine  for  the  benefit  of  mankind,  what  power 
can  my  I'lu  inii-^  liav  i.-  over  mc?  "  At  other  times,  confi- 
dent of  the  triuli  of  his  teachings,  he  appeals,  not  to  the 
people  of  own  day.  but  to  the  judgment  of  sages  that 
arc  to  ai)|ic.ir  in  di  -tant  aL;i.<. 

His  teaching  was  from  Heaven,  Init  it  was  not  imparted 
to  him  in  a  supernatural  way.  "  How."  he  exclaims, 
"docs  Heaven  sjjeak, — what  is  the  laiiirna/  it  addresses 
to  men?  The  seasons  follow  their  course,  and  all  things 
spring  into  life. — this  is  the  lani,niage  of  Heaven."  In 
his  view,  it  was  the  ])rovince  of  the  sai^e  to  interprec  Na- 
ture, not  merely  as  she  lives  in  the  forms  of  matter,  but 
as  she  breathes  m  the  soul  of  man. 

'I'liis  concepii'  ii  of  the  sluir^  jin.  or  sage,  had  hcgun 
to  take  shape  in  the  dawn  of  t  li'nesi-  civiliz.i  ion.  Con- 
fucius, who  did  more  than  any  other  to  ti\  the  forms  of 
that  civilization  by  a  wise  selection  of  the  hest  traditions, 
seized  on  the  idea  as  one  of  essential  importance,  and 
gave  it  precision,  without  arrogatuii;  the  charaeter. 

His  gran<ls<)n.  K'ung  Chieh.  half  a  century  later,  gave 
the  World  ,1  tht'<irv  of  ethics,  ha^t-d.  lila-  that  of  .\ristolle, 
on  the  assumption  that  good  is  a  nuddle  term  between  two 
evils.  I'nlike  the  Stagyrite.  he  gives  free  scope  to  a 
fervid  iiiia^itiatiiiU.  and  draws  a  glowing  picture  of  con- 
crete good  in  the  character  of  the  siting  jin,  or  perfect 
man.  The  passage  is  an  elocjuent  apotheosis  of  wisdom 
and  virtu>\  for  which  his  great  ancestor  confessedly 
served  as  a  human  model. 


CHINESE  IDEAS  OF  INSPIRATION  245 


Not  only  lias  i>o^t<.rity  ]u  rniitU(l  Confucius  to  remain 
on  that  exalttd  inilistal,  l)Ut  each  generation  has  con- 
triluilcd  to  raise  hiin  liiglicr. 

A  few  extracts  from  this  treatise  will  serve  to  exhibit 
the  Sape  as  fxiiniiiiilir  df  tlu'  Will  of  1  haven  : — 

*'  None  hut  tiie  must  sincere  is  able  to  exluuist  tiie  capa- 
bilities of  his  own  nature.  By  so  doing,  he  aids  the  work 
«.f  luaven  ami  laitli,  and  takes  his  place  as  third  among 
the  powers  of  the  universe." 

"  He  who  possesses  this  perfect  sincerity  attains  to 
l)roplietic  foresight.  This  quaHty.  therefore,  partakes  of 
the  divine." 

"  Great  is  the  Holy  Sa.c:e  (nr  slinii:;  jrn)  ;  all  the  books 
of  all  the  rites  wait  for  him  to  fnllill  tliem." 

■■  1  !<■  can  appeal  to  the  Rods  above,  l)ecause  he  knows 
iiiavcn;  and  to  the  wise  of  coming  times,  because  he 
knows  men." 

•■  lie  s])eaks,  and  none  hesitates  to  believe;  he  acts,  and 
none  fails  to  approve." 

"  His  fame  overflows  the  Iwundaries  of  China,  ami 
extends  to  'larliannis  peo])!(S.  Wlierever  shij)  or  chariot 
can  gu,  wherever  sun  and  miMn  give  light,  wherever 
frosts  and  dews  descend. — there  is  no  one  who  has  blootl 
and  breath,  who  dois  not  liniior  and  love  -ucli  a  man. 
Therefore,  he  is  said  to  he  the  ecpial  uf  Heaven." 

This  description  of  the  ideally  perfect  man.  drawn  as 
it  was  from  the  teaching  and  exanii)le  of  Confucius, 
caused  him  to  be  accepted  in  that  character.  Mencius. 
the  St.  Paul  of  Confucianism  its  last  and  greatest  apostle, 
confirmed  the  jndi;ineiu  of  the  author  of  "  The  Mean." 
His  Aords  are: — "  I'rom  the  time  that  human  life  ap- 
peared on  earth  down  to  this  day,  the  world  has  seen  no 
man  like  Confucius."  His  estimate  of  China's  greatest 
teacher  has  been  ratified  by  succeeding  ages. 


246 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


In  process  of  titnc,  ^pcoulaiivc  tlimipht  altaiiu'tl  a 
higher  dovelupmcnt ;  ami,  in  the  tlnDry  oi  the  universe 
which  it  produced,  the  sliciit;  jai  holds  a  «k-fiiiite  place. 
Heaven,  earth,  and  man.  form  a  triad  of  agents,  as  hinted 
already  in  the  "  Doctrine  of  the  Mean  ": — the  first  repre- 
senting self-acting  spirit;  the  second,  plastic  or  i)assi\e 
matter;  the  third,  man; — a  chiM  1»  ni  of  tluir  tiiii.m.— a 
microcosm  or  e]<itome  of  the  imiverse  his  smil  ii  tUciinij; 
the  piirt'  s]iirit  of  Heaven,  his  hodv  composed  o|  tlie  >;ross 
elements  of  earth.  For  the  Sape  it  is  reserved  to  connect 
the  two  in  .'i  ]>erfecl  union.  \ccnriliiiL:l\  we  ^ee,  in  all 
the  ten'pie^  of  Coiifiicin^,  a  centr.il  in^crijitiun  just  over 
the  shrine  of  the  spirit  tahlet : — Yi't  fii-n  ti  wri  Is'an, — 
"  He  fortns  a  triad  with  heaven  .-md  earth." 

The  concej>lion  is  uhvion^ly  pantheistic.  In  the  person 
of  the  Sape,  the  <Iiial  powers  find  their  harmony  com- 
pleted. He  r  i  i  i\(s  no  ^j..lken  ci inimiinication  ;  a^ks  no 
illuminatini;  iiiiiuence;  but,  eml«>dyiny  in  its  highest  de- 
gree the  spiritual  essence  of  Iinth.  he  becomes  liienby  an 
infallible  e.\iH)sitor  of  the  iiiiivi  r-~i  .  .1  law  i;i\i  r  in  il  e 
human  race.  It  is  said  of  him. — "  lie  .spi.iks.  and  his 
word  is  law  to  t!ie  world;  he  acts,  and  his  conduct  is  an 
unerring  exainplr  ' 

it  is  in  this  h^^'ht  thai  ti  c  (  hinoe.  uithoi.t  exception, 
are  accustomed  li.)  look  on  llie  last  of  thei:  ."^aijes.  He  is 
not  a  gfKl,  but  ;i  perfect  man;  not  a  prophet  who  utters 
occasional  oracle-^.  I  nt.  in  a;.d  deid,  ;i  coti-!aiit 

manile>tation  of  ideal  excellence.    He  does  not  speak  in 
the  name  of  a  higher  jM)v\er;  but.  if  that  power  were  con- 
ned a>  speaking,  it  could  a<ld  nothing  to  the  authority 
of  the  Sage. 

How  near  this  conception  approaches  to  the  Hin  hi 

virw   of  PiiiiMha    as  tin-  ii<'!  fr.  !  i  luliodinn-iu  of  inirtli 
gmce  ami  virtue,  needs  luA  to  be  |x>inieil  out.    lu  the 


CHiNESK  IDEAS  OK  INSPIRATION 


ConfiK-ian  ss-^tcm.  Iiowevor.  lluri'  is  a  vafjiu'  ])tTsoiia1il y 
callcil  Ikavcn,  alxjve  the  Sage;  while,  in  tiie  lludUhist, 
there  is  none. 

It  fiillwws  that  rvirylhinp  tliat  boars  the  seal  (if  such 
an  autluirity  is  sacred  in  the  highest  degree.  The  verlial 
text  of  his  Imoks  is  not  to  be  altered,  no  matter  what 
faults  may  be  ditei-tcd  by  rational  criticism.  Thus,  in- 
cimiplete  and  pleunastic  e\])res>i"iis.-  the  irmrs  of  an 
cient  copyists, — are  faitliliilly  r.  |.n«liice(l,  miiLli  as  vur 
Hebrew  Bibles  reprodm  e  ilu-  "  ayin  susf<cnsutH,"  and 
other  errors  nf  tran-- ripii' n,  Tliis  siipi  r>titi( >us  ver- 
encc  for  the  lelti  r  i;l  the  canon  syniiMjlizes  and  l\  .,ters 
that  unpropressive  conservatism  whicti  has  Ijecome  the 
unenviable  distinrtion  of  tlie  (  hinese  race. 

Conlucius,  it  ought  to  be  said,  and  his  great  disciple 
Mencius,  lend  no  countenance  to  such  unreasoning  wor- 
ship of  anti([nity.  The  latter  sa\s  boldly, — •■  It  were 
better  to  have  n.)  books  than  to  be  bound  to  believe  all 
that  our  books  contain," — referring,  it  is  thoujriu,  to  the 
Shu.  the  canonical  b<K)k  of  aneient  lii>torv.  And  Con- 
fucitts  lays  it  down,  as  the  first  duty  of  a  ruler,  to  aim 
at  the  "  renovation  of  his  people." 

In  conclusion,  it  would  li;ir<Ily  be  ])ertinent  to  raise  the 
question  whether  the  views  of  inspiralion.  which  we  liave 
been  considering,  are  favorable  or  adverse  to  the  adop- 
tion of  C  hristianity.  The  great  ."^age,  so  far  from  arro- 
gating dititiitive  eonipleienos  for  bis  own  s\>-teni,  leaiN 
his  disciples  to  expect  the  appearance  of  siting  ji'n  in 
coming  ages.  Nor  is  the  advent  of  such  Heaven-sent 
t(  .icber--  limited  to  C'liii.-i.  Tin  re  i-,  tlicri  fore,  nothing  to 
prevent  a  sound  Confucian  accefjting  Christ  as  the  Light 
of  the  World,  without  abandoning  his  faith  in  Confucius 
as  a  .speciid  teacher  for  the  Cbine•^^■  piopU-.  "Confucius 
plus  Christ"  is  a      inula  to  which  he  has  no  insuper- 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


able  ohjectiiin  ;  hut  tlio  man,  wlio  ap])roaches  liim  with 
such  an  alternative  as  "  Llirist  or  Confucius."  is  nut  likely 
to  meet  with  a  patient  Itearinjj;. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  native  Christians  continue  to  be- 
lieve in  the  missiiin  cf  Confucius,  much  as  converted 
Jews  do  in  that  of  Alo»es. 


XIV 


BUDDHISM  A  PREPAKATION  FOR  CHRISTIANITY 

THE  religion  which  above  all  others  has  a  right  to 
•  laini  MTiniis  ■.tiiil}-,  in  coiiipari'^i >»  witli  I'liris- 
tiatiily,  is  liuildhisin.  It  lias  been  bruuglu  tor- 
ward  of  late  .15  a  rival  to  Christianity,  not  merely  by  its 
traditional  vmariis,  hut  liy  pods  and  jjliilosopluTs,* 
educated  in  the  schools  oi  Lliristcndoni.  Tiie  poet  pur- 
'  loined  the  ornaments  of  the  daughters  of  Zion  to  deck 
an  Eastern  hcantyj  an<i  the  philnsoplier  ha.  in<Kavnrid 
to  persuade  \\  t  sti  rn  thinkers  tliat  their  hijrliest  wisdom 
is  to  sit  at  the  lect  oi  tlie  f:;ymnosn])hists  of  India. 

CJne  scarcely  knows  wliether  t'.ie  gospel  would  be  more 
discredited  h\  heinj;  set  tortli  as  i)la>;iari;'ii,i:  in  i>art  troin 
the  traditions  of  ln(ha.  or  iiy  being  proven  to  be  a  less 
effectual  remedy  for  human  woe  than  the  pessimism  of 
Sakyamuni. 

There  is  a  lawsuit  now  pending  in  the  courts  of  Eng- 
land, in  which  a  claimant  seeks  to  oust  the  present  occu- 
pant of  a  great  estate  by  pmving  that  he  belongs  to  an 
older  branch  of  the  family,  and  that  his  title  ante-dates 
the  other  by  more  than  a  century. 

In  the  forum  of  the  world,  the  contest  for  priority  of 
title  to  the  traditions  referred  to  is  of  infinitely  higher 

*  N C'.My  AriiiMd  .ind  Srhoppenhaur. 

f  Siiiif  this  was  first  pii!ili<hcd  Sir  Edwin  Arnold  has  given  u> 
a  noble  I'aliuojia  in  his  "  l.itlii  "f  ilu-  World." 


«50 


THE  LORE  Of  CATHAY 


monu'iif.  After  the  learned  i!Ui-sti;;ali()ns  of  Pr.  Ki'I- 
luKR.  ^^^^  scarvtly  l)e  said  of  it  adltiic  sub  judicc  lis  est; 
and  yet  it  is  one  of  those  cases  in  whicli  defeat  is  never 
acKnnuIedpod, — in  wlildi,  in  fact,  we  may  exjject  to  see 
tlie  old  pretensions  advanced  a.ijain  and  a^ain  with  as 
much  confidetice  as  if  tlicy  had  never  lieen  refuted. 

It  is  not  my  intcniioii  ti>  t;o  into  this  question  .ii  Kiiijth, 
on  the  pn-siiit  (■.  casii  ii ;  Iml  I  may  say,  in  ])assii)j^,  tliat  a 
new  and  wti^lity  autlu)rity  has  come  forward  to  refute 
the  claims  of  lUuldliism.  In  a  paper  in  the  '"  Ninetei-nth 
("intury"  (july,  i,'^SS),  tlic  {'.isliop  <if  (  idnmlin  ■-av<: 
"  We  must  disiiuj^uisii,"  in  reference  Id  lludilhism, 
"  two  very  dilTerent  sources  of  information,  only  one  of 
which  I  shall  s\ic:\k  of  as  historical.  Tlic  one  source  is 
the  iripiliikii,  or  threefold  collection  of  sacred  1mk)1<s, 
which  form?  ♦!ie  cation  of  Southern  Bnddliisni;  these  I 
call  the  1)1)1. i.l'  j-.n  i;.  r. 

"  The  other  source  is  the  '  liiofjraphies  of  ISuddlia'  and 
the  Lalitti  Vistaru,  which  are  of  uncertain  ilate,  between 
the  first  and  sixth  cciiturits  (  \.  d.).  These  last  are  the 
sources  of  Arnold's  '  I.ij;ht  of  Asia.' 

*■  We  have  l)cen  led  to  the  only  source  of  history, — the 
Pitakas.  Tlie  resultant  hioj^raphy  of  (/iautama*  shows 
notiiiiif^  suMcruatural ;  and  iiotliitu"  uliicii,  in  tliosi-  d.iys, 
was  str;mj;e,  1  he  life  of  <  laulama  contains  nothing; 
more  stranpe  than  does  the  life  of  Shakespeare." 

Tlic  I'lisliop  shr  ivAs  ci  ini'hi'-i\  flv  llii'  uiiliistorical  cliarac- 
te"-  of  much  of  tiiat  material  which  Sir  Edwin  .\rnold 
h;is  woven  into  his  iH-autifnl  |x>em.  As  a  poet,  he  had 
an  un(|iu'stiotiaMc  ritjht  to  cmjilov  it;  hut  it  hehoovi.-  all 
serious  thinkers  to  hcware  how  they  accept  poetry  in  place 
of  history. t 

*  The  name  for  Buddha,  in  general  use  in  Ceylon  and  Bumtah. 
tThre;  Lectures  on  Buddhism. 


A  PREPARATION  FOR  CHRISTlANll  Y  251 


Dr.  E.  Tr  Eitcl,  wlio  has  made  a  special  study  of  Bud- 

(llii-;m,  siiiiiniarizi's  h!~  coiu'hisioiis  iti  tlitso  \\nr<K:  — 

■  1  licre  is  not  a  lliuUlliisi  manuscript  that  can 

vie  in  antiquity  and  authority  with  the  oldest  codices  of 
the  TIu-  mn^i  aju  iciit  lUiddlii'-t  classics  cuntaiii 

but  few  (Kiails  of  liuddiia  >  htc,  and  none  wliatcvcr  ot 
those  above-mentioned  peculiarly  Christian  characteris- 
tics. XcarK  all  the  al"  ivc-i;i\ ( 11  li  s.;i  iids,  that  refer  Id 
events  that  happened  many  centuries  before  Christ,  can- 
not be  proved  to  have  l«?en  in  circulation  earlier  than  the 
fifth  or  sixth  century  after  Christ." 

Dr.  Kitel  points  to  early  Nestorian  Missions  as  what 
he  calls  "  the  ])recise  source  "  of  these  "  apparently  Chris- 
tian elements." 

That  Buildliisu!  liorrowed  unicii  in  stihserjuent  ages 
is  incontestaliK .  and  that  I '!iristia!iit\  borrowed  some- 
thini;  liiijhly  ])rol,alile.  l';Mfe>sor  Max  Miiiler  has 
shown  that  Ihuldha  Iniuself  has  been  canonized  as  a 
C  iiristian  .'^aint,  oidered  to  be  worsliipiied  on  tlie  jjlh 
of  Nove, liber,  under  the  title  of  .St.  Josaphat.* 

'i'he  fact  is  lliai  the  re^-einMirnces  lietuiiu  the  two 
prea!  relif^ions  of  the  llast  and  W  est  lie  far  deeper  than 
the  external  habiliment  of  jKieticnl  tradition,  or  the  super- 
ficial ;uialo!L;ies  of  reliiL;inus  onUr^  and  reli;,'.  .iis  ritual. 
They  are  traceable  in  the  tjt'neral  developmeiil  and  prac- 
tical do<-trines  of  Imth. 

liolli  are  foutid  to  pursue  a  course  exactly  the  recerse 
of  that  mapped  out  in  a  celebrated  dictum  of  Auguste 
Comte;  their  initial  stage  was  not  far  removed  from 
])ositiv!--ni,  and  \  el  Imtli  evolxc  a  s]it'-i,tial  universe:  one 
burst  the  bonds  of  Hindu  caste,  the  othir  Ijfokr  down  the 
walls  of  Jewish  isolation,  antl  each  stretclied  fordt  its 
hand  to  the  nations  with  the  offer  of  a  new  evangel. 

•  "  Contemporary  Review  "  for  July,  1870. 


»5a  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


nc<jinning  as  wide  apart  in  spirit  as  in  geographical  situa- 
liiiii,  tliey  have  Kradnally  approached  each  otiuT,  sd  that 
tluy  iiavc  ccinu',  in  the  course  of  ages,  to  (Kcnpy  the  same 
ground  in  liuth  .senses,  and  each  to  lend  a  tinge  to  the 
otluT. 

i'wr  till-  nhjfcts  i.t  our  prficut  inijuirv.  it  mattiTs  little 
h')\v  iiii()nsi>U-iit  the  IliuldliiMii  nl  oui-  (.Diiutry  or  of  one 
age  may  Im?  with  that  of  another ;  what  we  have  to  do 

i-'   In  C'tillKltr  it-.  rl'l'i  rlN.      Xn  ri  lit:  nil   I'.l"   i  \rr  ^lloWH 

iiM'll  .>u  plastic  as  ihal  of  iUnKlha,  not  only  ciianieleon- 
like,  taking  its  hue  from  its  surroundings,  hut  promul- 
L;;iiinL,'  at  ililTcrciit  timo  (|iHi!iiu>  o.ntradirtDrN  and  sclf- 
destnictive.  liej^iimmg  as  a  pliilo>opliy  of  .M-lf -discipline, 
it  developed  into  a  religions  cult.  At  the  outset  profess- 
iiiL;  atlieisin  pure  and  simple,  in  the  end  it  hnniglit  forth 
a  pantiieon  of  gods;  and,  most  won<leriul  of  all,  raised  a 
denier  of  God's  existence  to  the  throne  of  the  Supreme. 
Afiii  such  cliaii,L;is  in  doctrine,  it  is  hardly  surprising 
that  a  sysiein,  which  preferred  poverty  to  riches,  and 
deserts  to  cities,  siiould  in  later  times  seize  the  revenue 
of  Stall  -  ai'd  place  its  iiuiidii^iiii  friars  cm  the  throne 
of  KiiiL^s.  'i'!ie  C(iiitrovi  i  -ia'i  •:,  ulm  ha--  to  roiifrotn  lUid- 
lihism  as  an  opposin-  ffine,  nia\  ni;ikt  ilie  most  of  its 
contradictions  and  errors;  but  for  ourselves,  on  the  pres- 
ent occasion,  we  have  onh,  to  iiKpiir.-  wht  tlk-r  or  iiut  Ihul- 
dh'siii,  undi  r  any  or  all  of  its  phases,  as  seen  m  China, 
has  done  good  or  evil. 

At  the  [jrcsiiit  it  ma.  h<-  rm  olistnutioii.  hijt  that  does 
not  prove  that  its  past  iuthience  has  been  otherwise  than 
beneficent.  The  Western  farmer,  when  he  first  breaks 
!!!!  lii-  jir.-nrie  laud-,  liuds  his  ploii;;h  impeded  ;it  t'very 
-ti  p  by  the  stroiij^  roots  of  w  ild  i,fra--ses  ;  but  he  knows 
tliat  it  was  thubc  gra.->c.s,  yrwutny  up  year  alter  yoar 


A  PREPARATION  FOR  CHRISTIANITY  253 


through  ccnturic-s,  that  accumulated  the  rich  loam  in 

which  !k'  [ilants  Iiis  cnrii. 

Tlu-  inciilal  !<uil  nf  I  liina  is  com|)<>hC(J  of  thri-i'  lnulmj; 
elements,  which  have  Iwen  commingled  and  brought  into 
interaitii'ii  iti  siuli  .1  way  a>  to  |>rcsitit  tn  tho  siiiicrfuial 
observiT  a  lu)iiu)};ciKi)Us  aspect.  Tlicsc  arc  llic  thicc  re- 
ligions,— Confucian,  Taoist,  and  Buddhist. 

I.i't  lis  fiml  wlial  clciiRTits  I'.udilhism  lias  ccntriltntcd. 
to  inal<c  it  rtaily  for  the  higher  cultivation  of  uiir  Cliris- 
tian  e]Kx:h. 

The  fundamental  requisites  of  all  religious  teaching  are 
two,  vi?.: — 

I. — .\  belief  in  God;  i.  e., — in  some  effective  method 
of  divine  jjmornineMt. 

.'. —  A  luliif  ill  the  iminortahty  of  llie  soul;  i.  e., — in  a 
future  slate  of  heiii^^,  whose  condition  is  determined  by 
our  conduct  in  tlie  present  hfe. 

These  cardinai  dtictriius  ue  find  accepted  every wlierc 
in  I  Iiiiia.  1  here  arc,  it  is  true,  tliuse  who  deny  tlieni; 
but  such  are  Confucianists,  not  Buddhists ; — and  I  do  not 
hesitate  to  a<Tirn.  tliat,  for  the  j^eneral  prevalence  of  lidth, 
t  hiiia  is  mainly  indebted  to  the  agency  of  ISuddiiisni. 
When,  in  the  first  century  of  our  era,  its  missionaries 
arrived  from  [;i(lia,  thiy  found  a  .'^U]>rei;ie  ( lod  reco;;- 
nized  in  the  hooks,  but  practically  withdrawn  from  the 
homage  of  the  ma.sses,  because  he  was  considered  as  too 
exalted  to  be  approached  by  anyone  except  the  lord  of 
the  eni|)ire.  The  people  took  refuge  in  the  worship  of 
natural  objects  and  of  human  heroes;  not  one  of  all  their 
deities  taking  any  strong  hoUl  on  dieir  affections,  or  enter- 
ing' di  i  plx  into  their  spiritual  life. 

in  re^;ard  to  the  hope  of  a  future  existence,  the  state 
of  things  was  not  better.  The  worship  of  ancestors  main- 


*54 


THt  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


taituMl  a  shadowy  faith  in  somctliinjj  liki  ts.  but  it 
si  liloiti  atlioiintnl  to  a  [Hitiiit  cmivi.  tj  iii  I'lu  iIi^oiki- 
of  sikIi  a  Ciiiivictiun  sliowcil  il  ^i  ll  it;  tlic  •  ,i)LC<.'mt  ■>  •  vvitli 
which  men  laid  hold  on  the  faint  ho|Rr  held  mil  t'\  Taoist 
alchemy, — that  Mniic  im-diciiic  m]^\n  l>c  di  it.l 
would  van<|iii.-,li  death.  I'lic  U-w  iiuliu>i.iM-.  -tin  on 
mountain  tops,  scf-kinfj  for  the  elixir  i  iiai\  and  •.tn-tching 
tluir  luiii  ls  ainl  eves  ti)uarii>  lieavtit.  win  ih.  v  not 
rather  tniuhmg  proofs  of  a  unisirsal  uaiil.  ilian  evi- 
dences of  any  well-grounded  faith? 

It  i^  iis  in  fact  the  tlei  p  1 1  nsk  iMii-ncss  of  a  in  both 

respects  that  rendered  ihr  miMMhution  of  t'.uddhisni  so 
easy.  It  found  an  "  acliinj;  v. -id"  in  the  human  heart, 
anil  !i  liiKii  ii  witli  sueli  materials  as  it  possessed. 

Instead  of  tiieir  niateriahsiic  conceptions,  it  rai-ed  the 
Chinese  to  a  helief  in  the  powers  of  a  spiritual  universe 
infinitely  more  ^rand  th.m  this  visible  world.  In  that 
universe.  lUiddhas  and  divinities  of  the  ne\t  ^T.ide. 
called  liodisatwas,  held  ^way.  nut  limite<l  to  any  hill  or 
city,  but  extending  to  all  places  where  their  devout  wor- 
shi!)]>ers  called  for  succor,  nudilha,  'h  i-.ij^h  in  theorv 
alreaiiy  passe»l  into  the  blesseilness  of  an  unconscunis 
Nirvana,  was  popularly  held  to  be  the  actual  lord  of  the 
liiHv  '-i'.  I'.uil  -atw Wile  l)elie\ril  t  ■  liave  the  forces 
of  nature  at  command,  and  to  be  actively  engaged  in  the 
work  of  blessing  mankind. 

'I'lii  Miperi.  irity  of  these  Buddlii-t  <iiviiii;irs  ovt  r  thnso 
wliich  they  displaceil,  consists  chietly  in  the  f..  t  that  they 
possess  a  moral  character.  Ry  virtue,  they  have  risen  in 
the  scale  of  being  in  a  ])roKre>'^ii m,  bounded  onlv  I>\  that 
sublime  height  on  which  Huddha  sits  wrapped  in  solrtary 
Contemplation.  Their  human  kindnos  rendered  tin  iii  , it- 
tractive,  aiiil  tiH'  mo-!  popular  of  all  is  the  (ImMt  of 
Mercy.    She  hold.-,  in  her  arms  an  infant  child,  and 


MICROCOPY  RESOLUTION  TEST  CHAIT 

(ANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHART  No.  2) 


j=    APPLIED  IN/MGE  Inc 


A  PREPARATION  FOR  CHRISTIANITY  255 


stretches  a  thousand  hands  to  help  tlie  needy ;  what  won- 
der that  she  is  the  favorite  object  of  Chinese  devotion. 
She  is  Lallcd  hriofly  fn  Sa,  and.  in  most  parts  of  tlie 
empire,  that  term  is  employed  to  express  the  idea  of  a 
vigilant  and  merciful  Providence.  Providence  is  also 
commonly  ascribed  to  linddha.  The  "  blessing "  and 
"  protection  "  of  Buddha  arc  phrases  in  familiar  use. 
In  a  set  of  verses,  to  which  I  shall  have  occasion  to  refer 
again,  the  abbot  of  a  monastery  in  the  Western  Hills 
ascribes  the  fruits  of  the  earth  to  the  goodness  of 
Buddha.* 

The  verses  read: — 

"  The  production  of  a  grain  of  rice  is  as  great  a  work  as  the  crea- 
tion of  a  mountain. 

Had  it  not  been  for  the  power  of  Buddha,  where  should  we 
have  found  our  food? 

If  we  sincerely  remember  how  near  to  us  is  Buddha,  then  we 
may  dare  to  accept  the  nourishment  that  heaven  and  earth 
afford." 

Our  present  inquiry  relates  to  Buddhism  in  China ;  but 

it  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  indicate  that  a  similar  trans- 
formation of  the  original  conception  of  Buddha  has  taken 
place  in  other  countries,  especially  in  those  that  belong  to 
the  Northern  School.  In  Japan,  Ainitaha  is  endowed 
with  the  attributes  of  Preserver  and  Redeemer.  In  Mon- 
golia, the  same  is  true  of  Borhan  ( a  name  which  I  take 
to  be  derived  from  Buddha  and  Arhan )  ;  and  missionary 
translators  have  not  hesitated  to  accej)!  it  as  a  fitting  ex- 
pression for  God,  in  the  rendering  of  our  Holy  Scrip- 

♦  The  volume  from  which  I  copied  these  and  other  stanzas  is  in 
manuscript.   It  was  lent  me  by  the  author. 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


tures.  In  Nei):uil,  Adi-IUiddha  is  adored  as  tlic  siiiircmc 
and  living  A  li\nin,  wliicli  I  translate  Innn  the 

French*  (which  in  turn  is  taken  from  an  English  trans- 
lation of  Hodgson),  describes  him  thus: — 

1.  — "In  tht  beginning  there  was  nothing:  all  was  emptiness. 

and  tlu'  t\w  cU'n'ciit-  had  no  oxistoncc. 

Tiicn  Adi-Biulihi  i  rcvcakil  lilnisclf  unuiT  the  form  of 

a  tlainc  of  light. 

2.  — He  is  the  great  Buddha  who  exist.s  of  himself. 

3.  — All  things  that  exist  in  the  three  worlds  have  their  cause  in 

him ;  he  it  is  who  sustains  their  being.  From  him.  and 
out  of  hir  profound  meditation,  the  universe  has  spnuiK 
into  life. 

4. — He  is  the  coniliin.ition  of  all  pcrfictions ;  the  infinite  one, 

who  lias  neither  bodily  members  nor  passions! 
All  tilings  are  his  iir.age,  yet  he  has  no  image. 
5- — The  delight  of  Adi-Buddha  is  to  make  happy  all  sentient 
creatures. 

He  tenderly  loves  those  who  serve  him ; 

His  iiia.i(--ly  tills  the  heart  with  terror; 
He  is  tne  con.-okr  of  those  who  siitTer." 

Who  will  deny  that  tliis  is  a  noble  psalm  of  praise; 
that  the  sublime  ascrijitinns  which  it  contains  arc  worthy 
to  be  laid  as  an  offering  at  the  feet  of  Jehovah  ? 

May  we  not  say  that  a  people  who  have  derived  these 
ideas  from  the  teachings  of  Buddhism  appear  to  be  in  a 
state  of  comparative  readiness  for  the  message  of  an 
apostle  of  the  true  faitli.  proclaiming — "  Whom,  there- 
fore, ye  ignorantly  worship,  him  declare  I  unto  you  "? 

Let  us  see  if  the  same  kind  of  preparaticMi  is  to  be  dis- 
covered in  the  notions  entertained  in  regarfl  to  the  soul. 

In  China,  prior  to  the  arrival  of  Buddhism,  there  ex- 
isted on  this  subject,  as  we  have  said,  a  painful  sense  of 
deficiency. 

*  Tour  du  Monde,  Voyage  au  Nepal,  1888. 


A  PREPARATION  FOR  CHRISTIANITY  257 


Buddhism  came  as  an  evangel  of  hope,  teaching  that 
immortality  is  man's  inaliciiaMc  itihc'ritanci.',  and  not  tlie 
inheritance  of  man  only,  but  of  every  sentient  creature; 
that  all  are  connected  by  the  links  of  an  endless  chain, 
movini,'-  onward  in  unceasins,'  ])rocession,  either  on  an 
ascending  or  descending  scale ;  that  the  reality  of  the  next 
stage  of  being  is  more  certain  than  the  existence  of  the 
material  objects  by  which  \vc  are  surro;  ided;  that  the 
soul  is  an  immaterial  essence,  which  the  transformations 
of  matter  have  no  power  to  destroy ;  and  finally,  that  the 
wea!  or  woe  of  the  future  life  depends  on  the  conduct 
of  each  individual  during  this  present  state  of  prol)ation. 

How  thoroughly  tliis  teaching  has  permeated  the 
Chinese  mind  may  be  seen  in  the  following  passage  from 
f.iH  )'rii  f'.ui  Tec.  one  nf  most  popular  ti'xt-liooks  em- 
ployed in  the  schools  of  Peking.  "  The  glory  and  happi- 
ness of  the  present  life  are  fruits  that  spring  from  seeds 
plan'od  in  a  former  state.  If  tlio  jiresent  life  is  hnnsirx 
cold,  and  bitter,  the  fountain  of  evil  is  to  be  traced  to  the 
sins  of  a  former  state  of  existence." 

Tlic  materializing  views  of  Taoism  arc  condemned  (to 
quote  only  one  example)  in  the  following  verses  from 
another  book.* 

"  Ye  who  study  the  doctrine  of  Tao, 
And  strive  to  prepare  the  elixir  of  immortality, — 
Do  you  not  reflect  that  the  elements  of  immortality  are  within 
you? 

Do  yon  not  know  that  the  elixir  of  life  is  within  you? 
For  soul  and  spirit,  they  arc  the  root  and  fountain." 

In  the  same  book,  there  are  verses  which  represent  a 
princoss  (who  became  tlie  goddess)  as  annoimcing  her 

*  Kuan  Yin  Ching,  a  metrical  biography  of  the  goddess  of 
mercy. 


2s8  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


resolution  to  adopt  a  religious  life,  and  with  many  tears 
exhorting  her  parents  to  do  the  same.   She  says : — 

"  If  a  man  live  to  a  hundred  years,  his  life  in  as  a  dream; 
Glory  and  wealth  pass  away  like  a  flash  of  gunpowder. 
I  beg  my  father  and  mother  to  give  themselves  to  works  o! 

piety, 

To  worship  Btiddha,  to  read  the  holy  books,  and  move  the  heart 

of  Heaven ; 

To  store  up  good  works,  to  confirm  your  own  virtues, 
And  escape  from  a  sea  of  bitterness,— a  world  of  dust  and 
turmoil. 

Owing  to  your  good  deeds  in  a  former  state,  you  now  possess 

the  sovereignty  of  bills  nnd  rivers. 
If,  standiriR  on  your  iiri-scnt  hciRht.  yon  still  stri\  c  tipwanl. 
Praying  the  gods  to  write  your  n.iini  s  on  the  roll  of  the  purple 

mansion. 

You  may  come  to  enjoy  the  blessedness  of  Heaven,  and  rise 
above  the  estate  of  men." 

I  do  not,  for  my  present  purpose,  po  into  the  recondite 
lore  of  great  libraries,  but  rather  draw  my  proofs  from 
manuals  of  the  family  and  of  the  common  school,  in  ordc. 
to  show  what  dtx-trincs  are  actually  in  jHisst'ssicin  of  the 
popular  mind.  That  they  teach  the  supreme  importance 
of  a  life  to  come,  there  is  no  denying.  Their  best  views 
are  vitiated  by  mixture  witli  tlie  errors  of  inetcinpsyciiosis. 
But  is  not  this  so  far  a  preparation  for  rexreiving  a  better 
hope  from  Him  who  hath  abolished  death  and  "  brought 
life  and  immortality  to  light  through  the  gospel?" 

Let  us  next  inquire  into  its  influence  in  bringing  about 
those  states  of  mind  which  are  described  as  the  Christian 
graces  For  want  of  time,  I  refrain  from  going  into  an 
examination  of  the  Buddhist  decalogtie,  or  in  any  other 
way  entering  into  a  general  comparison  oi  Buddhist  and 


A  PREPARATION  FOR  CHRISTIANITY  259 


Christian  ethics.  The  side  of  ethics,  with  which  we  have 
to  <k)  at  present,  is  thsrt  which  looks  heavenward ;  i.  e., — 

rcli,i;inn  in  it.s  practical  aspect. 

Our  Christian  ethics,  in  their  religious  bearings,  are 
beautifully  summarized  by  "  Faith,  Hope,  and  Charity." 
Has  r.uddliism  anylhin;;  answcrin};  to  these?  If  it  has, 
it  differs  in  that  respect  from  all  other  pagan  religions. 
In  the  old  religions  of  Greece  and  Rome,  the  things  signi- 
fied were  so  utterly  unknown  that  the  three  words  ac- 
quired a  new  signification  in  passing  into  C  liristian  use. 
As  for  the  early  religions  of  China,  they  have  nothing  to 
show  under  the  rubrics  of  Faith,  and  Hope,  though  Char- 
ity was  emphasized  by  (  onfucius.  Is  it  not,  then,  claim- 
ing for  Buddhism  a  great  appro.ximation  to  our  divine 
syst  cm  to  assert  that  it  possesses  all  three  ? 

FaitI;  keeps  in  view  the  realities  of  the  unseen  world, 
and  supplies  the  place  of  sight  and  of  reason  too,  to  no 
small  extent.  The  place  assigned  to  it  is,  as  with  us,  at 
the  head  of  the  list.  In  a  publication  by  a  learned  priest 
of  Ningpo,  Faith  is  called  "  the  mother  of  virtues." 

Our  abbot  of  the  Western  Hills  gives  ic  an  equally  ex- 
alted position;  and,  like  St.  James,  be  connects  it  with 
"  works,"  as  proof  of  its  genuineness.  He  says : — "  To 
be  a  Buddhist,  faith  has  always  been  considered  the  first 
requisite ;  but  faith  without  works  is  vain." 

Can  anything  show  more  clearly  than  tliis  antithesis 
that  the  word  is  employed  in  a  sense  identical  with  its 
Christian  usage? 

From  this  peculiar  prominence  of  the  grace  of  faith, 
it  almost  follows  as  a  matter  of  course  tliat  the  adherents 
of  the  faith  should  be  called  "  believers."  We  are  not, 
tluTcfore.  surprised  to  find  the  tenn  lisin  shih,  "  believers," 
in  general  use.   Shan  nan  lisin  nii  "  honest  men  and  be- 


a6o  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


lieving  women,"  is  a  frjqi-^nt  phrase,  which  tells  its  own 

story  as  to  tlu'  pr  porti'  n  of  Ik  Himts  in  llie  tvvi)  si'xcs. 

Hope  is  a  grace  which  iUiddlii-siu  makes  prominent, 
without  having  a  word  for  it.  Of  the  emphasis  it  lays 
on  the  hiipe  of  imuiorialits .  1  have  already  spoken  in 
treating  of  that  cardinal  doctrine.  The  constant  endeav- 
O'T  of  a  devout  Buddhist,  is  to  secure  the  rewards  of  the 
to  come  hy  working  and  ^iilTeriiig  in  this  present 

lid?  In  Chinese  Buddhism,  that  which  kindles  ho])e 
and  quickens  effort  in  the  highest  degree,  is  the  prospect 
of  entrance  into  the  "  happy  land;  "  the  "  pure  or  sinless 
land;  "  the  "  paradise  of  the  West?  "  This  is  the  Bud- 
dhist's hope  of  heaven. 

On  the  place  of  harity  in  the  Buddhist  scheme,  I  need 
not  dila.e.  l.o  )  heing,  in  the  l)roadest  sense,  is  en- 
joined hy  prect.])t;  it  was  exemplified  in  the  life  of  the 
founder,  and  it  finds  expression  in  every  phase  of  Bud- 
dhist religious  life.  Compassion  is  the  form  which  it 
chiefly  takes.  The  loftier  form  of  adoring  love  for  divine 
perfection,  as  in  our  Christian  system,  is  less  frequent, 
but  not  wholly  wanting.  Is  it  not  charity  to  i:ien  that  our 
abbot  expresses,  when  he  says — "  My  desire  is  to  pluck 

every  creature  that  is  endowed  with  fer*    of  this 

sea  of  misery?"    Is  it  not  something  >  vc  tu 

God,  when  he  says — "  In  your  wal^*,  ..lUe  on 
Buddha;  call  to  min4  bis  refulgent  person;  at  every  step, 
pronounce  his  name,  and  beware  that  you  deceive  not 
your  own  heart  ? " 

It  follows,  from  what  we  have  seen,  that  Buddhism 
must  have  made  an  immense  addition  to  the  religious  vo- 
cabulary of  the  Chinese  people.  For  the  jargon  of  its 
Sanskrit  prayers,  and  for  a  multitude  of  theological  terms, 
imported  bodily  from  India,  I  have  no  word  of  praise  oi* 


A  PREPARATION  FOR  CHRISTIANITY  261 


apolopy;  but,  within  tlie  domain  of  pure  Chinese,  it  is 
safe  to  aft'irin  that  lliKlillii-iii  has  (.'iiriihi'd  the  lan^juage, 
as  it  lias  ciilari^i'd  the  splicre  of  jxipiilar  thi'ui;ht. 

It  has  fjiven  the  Chinese  such  ideas  as  tlie)'  possess  oi' 
heaven  and  hell;  and  of  spiritual  beings,  rising  in  a  hier- 
archy above  mail,  or  sinking  in  moral  turpitude  below 
man.  It  has  given  tliem  all  their  familiar  terms  rehumg 
to  sin,  to  good  works,  to  faith,  to  repenvance;  and,  m^st 
important  of  all,  to  a  righteous  retribution,  which  includes 
the  awards  of  a  future  life. 

Not  one  of  these  words  or  phrases  conveys  to  the  Chi- 
nese the  exact  idea  recpiired  by  the  teachings  of  Christian- 
ity ;  yet  the  first  teachers  of  Christianity,  on  coming  to 
China,  seized  on  these  terms  as  so  much  material  made 
rea  V  to  their  hand,  sprinkled  them  with  holy  water,  and 
cons  crated  them  to  a  new  use.  Matteo  Ricci  soon  re- 
nounced the  Buddhist  garb ;  but  no  missionary,  Papal  or 
Protestant,  has  ever  aban  loned  the  Buddhist  terminology. 

Half  the  churches  in  Rome  are  built  of  stones  taken 
from  the  temples  of  Paganism  ;  and  some  of  them,  such 
as  the  Pantheon  and  the  Ara  Coeli,  continue  to  be  known 
by  their  old  naines.  So  half  the  doctrines  of  Christianity 
are  introduced  to  the  Chinese  in  a  dress  borrowed  from 
Buddhism.  It  could  not  be  otherwise;  and  this  fact, 
taken  alone,  a^ipiars  almost  decisive  in  favor  of  the  affirm- 
ative side  of  the  question  under  discussion. 

If  the  eloquent  Saurin  is  right  in  asserting  that  God's 
purpose  in  brintjing  Judea  under  the  domination  of 
Greece  was,  by  the  introduction  of  the  Greek  language, 
to  provide  a  more  perfect  vehicle  for  the  revelations  of 
the  new  dispensation,  is  it  going  too  far  to  suggest  that 
Buddhism  has  bad  a  similar  mission?  Mas  it  not,  pre- 
pared a  language  for  the  commtuiication  of  divine  truth  ? 


26a 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


Has  it  not  ali  »  prepared  the  mind  of  the  people  to  receive 
it,  by  importing  :i  stock  nf  spiritual  ideas,  and  by  culti- 
vating thtir  spiritual  si  risc? 
But,  however  sympathetic  may  be  our  mental  attitude 

in  regard  tu  it,  we  must  admit  that  its  iiii,-.si()n  is  finished, 
and  that,  for  the  future,  tlic  higiicsi  service  it  can  render 
will  be  to  supply  a  native  stock  on  which  to  graft  the 
vine  of  Christ.  I'.y  giving  the  CliincM'  an  example  of  a 
foreign  creed  winning  its  way  and  lioldiiig  its  gi  and  in 
spite  of  opposition,  it  has  prepared  them  to  i  xjicct  a  repe- 
tition of  the  plKiioiiunnii.  \,  Buddhists  (and  though 
professing  to  be  Confucians,  tluy  arc  marly  all  iiMrc  or 
less  tinged  with  Lkiddliism)  tlity  arc  taiiglii  to  iiciicve 
that  their  present  form  of  faith  is  not  final,  and  to  look 
for  a  fuller  manifestation  in  an  aire  of  liii^her  light.  W  ill 
not  this  prci)arc  them,  when  the  tide  sets  in  that  direction, 
to  accept  Christianity  as  the  fulfilment  of  their  expec- 
tation?* 

Sir  Monicr  Williams  states  tlie  negative  features  oT  the 
Buddhist  creed  in  terms  not  less  forcible  and  explicit. 
"Buddhism,"  he  says,  "has  ik>  creator,  no  creation,  iio 
original  germ  of  all  things,  no  soul  of  the  world,  no  per- 
sonal, no  impersonal,  no  supermundane,  no  antemundane 
principle." 

Of  original  and  classic  Uuddliism,  tliis  is  strictly  true ; 
and  the  defects  of  the  root  affect  more  or  less  all  the 
branches.  Still  it  is  very  instructive  to  remark  how.  in 
the  Northern  Buddhism  with  which  I  am  dealing,  man's 

*  Professor  Kliys  D.ivid  in  Buddhism  and  Christianity  m.-ikes 
the  f.  illowiiifi  st.itcinent : 

"  In  Hii'lclhism,  we  have  an  ethical  system,  but  no  law  giver;  a 
world  without  a  creator,  a  salvation  without  eternal  life,  and  a 
sense  o£  evil,  but  no  conception  of  pardon,  atonement,  reconcilia- 
tion, or  redemption." 


A  PREPARATION  FOR  CHRISTIANITY  263 


religious  instincts  triumph  over  the  obstacles  created  by 

an  ailkistic  i)liil()siii)liy  that  liiKldMsm  lias  become 
liri-cniimiiily  the  nli-Kms  Jiscipliiu'  oi"  ICasttTti  Asia.* 

*  The  assumptiDii  by  HiiddliiMii  of  a  Uisiinctly  religious  charac- 
ter is  primarily  due  to  the  school  of  Mahayana,  which  Eitel  de- 
scribes as  "a  later  form  of  the  dogma,— unc  of  the  three  |)ha-,cs 
of  its  development,  characterizid  hy  an  excess  of  transcindcnial 
speculation,  and  noi  kiii.un  ii,  Somlurii  ItiKl.MnMii." 

The  Buddhists  of  Japan  utv  bcKiiinnig  to  agitate  the  cjueslion 
whrtht  r  I  hi-  Mahayana  rests  in  any  degree  on  the  authority  of 
Sakyainuni. 

How  near  the  Reformed  Buddhism  of  Japan  approaches  to 
Christianity  will  l>c  apparent  from  the  following  printed  state- 
ment given  me  by  a  prie'-t.  I  y  whom  it  was  drawn  up: 

"Otir  M',-t  call,-, I  Shiiishtu  'True  I>octrine'  teaches  the  doc- 
trine (jf  iulp  froin  aiiolluT. 

"  Ni)W  what  i-i  this  help  from  aiioiluT?  It  is  the  great  power 
of  Aniita  Buddha.  Ainita  means  '  boundless.'  Therefore  AmiU 
is  the  chief  of  the  Buddhas.  Our  sect  pays  no  attention  to  the 
other  Buddhas,  but  putting  faith  in  Aniita  t  xpnts  to  i  .apc  from 
this  miserable  world  and  to  cnltT  Para<lisi'  in  the  next  life  l"iMin 
the  time  of  ptutiiii;  faitli  in  liifldlia.  wc  do  iioi  nci'd  any  power 
of  self-ht  lp— hut  ntid  <.iily  to  kiip  his  nitrcy  in  heart,  and  invoke 
his  name  in  order  to  rememher  him. 

"  We  make  no  difference  between  priest  and  layman  as  com.  rns 
the  way  of  salvation.  The  priest  is  allowed  to  marry  and  to  .it 
flesh  and  fish— which  is  prohibited  to  tbe  members  of  the  other 
Buddhist  sects." 


XV 


THE  WORSHIP  OF  ANCESTORS  IK  CHIIVA 

r those  early  tlays  wfu-n  Moses  was  Koins;  to  school 
to  the  prit-'t-  Ml  Miiuphis,  atnl  vvluii  iVcrops  had 
not  yet  landid  mi  ilio  i,h(ircs  of  Anna,  the  civiliza- 
tion of  China  wa?«  erystallized  into  permanent  shai>e,  and 
the  national  reli},M<>n  consisted  of  three  elements:  i.  The 
worship  of  Shan::  I  i.  the  Siii)reine  Ruh  r  ;  Tlu  \\,ir-.hip 
of  powers  supiH)seil  to  prt'side  over  tht  principal  depart- 
ments of  material  nature ;  and  3.  The  worsliip  of  deceased 
aneesti  irs 

'I  he  earliest  recorded  instance  of  the  latter  dates  hack- 
to  a  period  anterior  to  the  callinfj  of  Ahrahani ;  when 
Shun,  the  sou  uf  a  blind  peasant,  was  acinpted  intu  the 
family  of  the  Kniperor  Yao  and  acknowledged  as  heir  to 
the  throne.  2300  11.  c. 

Of  the  ceremonial  empIo\ed  on  this  occasion,  we  have 
no  details  ;  the  statement  that  the  "  concludim,'  rites  "  were 
performed  in  the  temide  of  Wen  Tsii,  the  ancestor  of 
Yao.  is  all  that  the  historian  has  vouchsafed  to  communi- 
cate.   Vet,  how  much  is  implied  in  this  laconic  record? 

It  imi)lies,  on  the  part  of  Yao.  an  announcement  to  the 
si)iriis  of  his  forefathers  of  his  purpose  to  effect  a  chanpe 
in  the  line  of  succession.  On  the  jiart  of  Shun,  it  imi)lies 
a  reverential  acceptance  of  Yao's  ancestors  in  place  of  his 
own.  and  the  assumption  in  their  presence  of  vows  of 
fidelity  in  the  discharge  of  his  high  functions. 

364 


THE  WORSHIP  OF  ANCEbTORS  265 

When  the  Emperor  now  on  the  throne,  was  adopted  by 
Ml  Empress  Regent  as  the  son  of  his  uncle  Hsien  Feng,  a 
>imilar  ceremony  was  piTfomitMl  l)y  proxy  in  tin-  ti-mplc 
of  the  deceased  sovereign.  On  that  occasion,  a  fanatical 
censor.  Wu  K'o  Tu,  protested  against  the  affiliation  to 
ilsicn  1-Vnj,':  contended  tliat  it  was  duiii^r  .lislmnor  to  the 
last  Kniperor  1  ung  Chi!;,  to  1'-  r  him  without  a  son; 
and,  in  order  to  give  empha  i  remonstrance,  he 

sealed  it  will,  his  hlood,  k*  ..  :rg  hit  life  before  the 
tomb  of  tile  latter  sovereign. 

This  occurrence,  illustrating  as  it  does  what  took  place 
40(J()  years  a^o,  is  of  itsell  sufficient  to  prove  that  in  the 
Lhina  of  to-day  the  worship  of  ancestors  is  not  a  dead 
form,  but  a  living  faith. 

Not  onl  is  the  adopticm  of  an  heir  to  the  thrtme  thus 
formally  announced  to  the  ancestors  of  tlie  reigning  house ; 
every  case  of  regular  succession  is  solemnly  notified  by  a 
similar  ceremonial. 

In  the  ijth  century  i)efore  "ur  era,  Wu  Wan;^  over- 
turned the  house  of  Shang,  and  founded  the  dynasty  of 
Cliou.  In  the  indictment  which,  to  justify  his  rebellion, 
he  brins:s  dnst  the  dcfjenerate  occupant  of  the  throne, 
he  begins  iiarging  hii;,  with  neglecting  the  service  of 
Sh.ing  Ti  ..lid  subordinate  deities,  and  even  forgetting 
to  -.acritice  at  the  altars  of  his  own  ancestors. 

'n  a  second  manilcsto,  he  refers  to  his  de  ceased  father 
We.i  Wang,  and  adds-  '  If  I  gain  the  victory,  it  will  not 
be  ihrough  my  own  prowess,  but  through  the  merits  of 
my  father.  If  I  am  beaten,  it  will  not  be  from  any  fault 
in  my  father,  but  solely  from  the  want  of  virtue  in  me." 

He  warns  his  soldiers  that—"  if  they  are  brave,  they 
will  be  rewarded  publicly  in  the  temple  of  his  ancestors ; 
but  if  cowardly,  they  will  be  slain  at  the  altars  of  the 
earth-gods." 


266  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


Siicli  was  tliL  place  held  by  tlie  worship  of  ancestors 
at  the  dawn  of  history,  along  with  that  of  Shang  Ti  and 
a  host  of  inferior  divinities.  At  the  present  day,  no  one 
can  visit  the  magnificent  monuments  of  the  Ming  Em- 
perors, or  w  itncss  the  vast  sums  expended  on  the  mausolea 
of  the  reigning  House,  without  a  profound  conviction  that 
the  cult  of  ancestors  has  lost  nothing  of  its  ancient  sanc- 
tity. 

In  1889  the  reigning  Emperor  and  the  Dowager  Em- 
press made  a  solemn  pilgrimage  to  the  tombs  of  their 
fathers ;  the  former  to  report  in  person  his  marriage  and 
full  accession  to  imperial  power,  the  latter  to  give  account 
of  her  exercise  of  delegated  authority  during  her  long 
regency.  What  stronger  proof  could  he  retpiired  of  the 
important  position  which  the  worship  of  ancestors  still 
occupies  in  the  religion  of  the  State? 

It  is  not.  however,  i  •  rioted  to  the  ruling  classes.  It 
forms  the  leading  eleinem  in  the  religion  of  the  people. 

It  is,  in  fact,  the  only  form  of  religion  which  the  gov- 
ernment takes  the  trouble  to  propagate  among  its  sub- 
jects. 

Every  household  has  somewhere  within  its  doors  a 
small  shrine,  in  which  are  deposited  the  tablets  of  ances- 
tors, and  of  all  deceased  members  of  the  family  who  liave 
passed  the  age  of  infancy. 

Each  clan  has  its  ancestral  temple,  which  forms  a  rally- 
ing point  for  all  who  belong  to  the  common  stock.  In 
such  temples,  as  in  the  smaller  shrines  of  the  household, 
the  objects  of  reverence  are  not  images,  but  tablets, — slips 
of  wood  inscribed  with  the  name  of  the  deceased,  to- 
gether with  the  dates  of  birth  and  death.  In  these  tablets, 
according  to  popular  belief,  dwell  the  spirits  of  the  dead. 
Before  them  ascends  the  smoke  of  daily  incense;  and, 


THE  WORSHIP  OF  ANCESTORS  267 

twice  in  the  month/offerings  of  fruits  and  other  eatables 
are  presented,  accompanied  by  solemn  prostrations 
_  In  some  cases,  particularly  ,\unu<^  a  peri,,,!  of  nioum- 
Jng,  the  members  of  the  family  salute  the  dead,  morning 
and  evenmg,  as  they  do  the  living;  and  on  special  occa- 
sions, sucli  as  a  marriaK^e  or  a  funeral,  there  are  religious 
services  of  a  more  elaborate  character,  accompanied  some- 
times by  feasts  and  theatrical  shows. 

Besides  vvor.hip  in  presence  of  the  representative  tablet 
periodical  rites  are  performed  at  the  fan.ih  cemetery 
In  spring  and  autumn,  when  the  mildness  of  the  air  is 
such  as  to  invite  excursi.^ns,  city  families  are  wont  to 
choose  a  day  for  visiting  the  resting  places  of  their  dead. 
Clearing  away  the  grass,  and  covering  the  tombs  with  a 
layer  of  fresh  earth,  they  present  oflFerings  and  perform 
acts  of  worship.  This  done,  they  pass  the  rest  of  the 
day  in  enjoying  the  scenery  of  the  country. 

KBLATION  TO  THE  SAN  CHIAO,  08  THREE  RELIGIONS. 

Such,  in  outline,  is  the  system  of  ancestral  worship.  It 
constitutes  the  very  heart  of  the  religion  of  China.  The 
Supreme  Ruler  is  too  august  to  be  approached  by  ordi- 
nary mortals.  As  to  other  divinities,  their  worship  is  in- 
cumbent only  on  priests  or  magistrates :  but  the  worship 
of  ancestors  is  obligatory  on  all.  Thev  are  tlie  pcnatcs 
of  every  household.  To  honor  them  is  religion ;  to  neg- 
lect them  the  highest  impiety. 

Usages  of  this  kind  spring  as  naturalh  as  the  grass 
from  the  gravis  of  the  deceased;  and  in  ancient  times 
the  funeral  rites  of  the  Chinese  differed  little  from  those 
of  other  nations.  That  by  uhicl,  they  are  justly  dis- 
tinguished is  that,  instead  uf  suffering  them  to  be  over- 


268  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


shadowed  by  polytlicism,  tliey  alone  liavc  shaped  their 
offioi's  for  the  (I'.ad  into  an  all-porvadinp  and  potent  cult 
which  moulds  the  social  and  spiritual  life  of  every  indi- 
vidual in  the  Empire. 

Spontaneous  in  its  oripin,  in  its  developed  form  it  is 
the  slow  growth  of  thirty  centuries.  It  was  practised  in 
the  Golden  Ap^e  of  Chinese  history,  two  thousand  years 
before  the  (.'hristirai  era:  and  in  the  riti's  of  ("liou.  a  thou- 
sand years  later,  we  find  it  reduced  to  a  precise  and  com- 
plicated code;  but  it  was  not  so  stereotyped  as  to  be 
incapable  of  further  alteration.  It  was  disfigured  by 
grotesque  ceremonies,  the  reproduction  tf  which  at 
the  present  day  would  be  regarded  as  hardly  less 
shocking  than  the  restoration  of  humun  sacrifices 
— I  allude  particularly  to  that  curious  arrangement 
by  which  a  solenui  act  of  religion  was  converted 
into  a  ridiculous  masquerade — young  children  being 
made  to  personate  their  ancestors,  and,  h;.  aed  in  ghostly 
costume,  receiving  the  homage  of  their  own  parents.  Nor 
was  it  then  clothed  with  the  imperious  authority  which  it 
now  exercises.  In  the  life  of  Confucius  we  find  recorded 
the  remarkable  fact  that  when  arrived  at  manhood  he  was 
ignorant  of  the  burial-place  of  his  father,  who  had  died 
when  he  was  an  infant,  and  it  was  not  initil  the  death  of 
his  mother  that  he  took  pains  to  ascertain  it.  This  indi- 
cates a  degree  of  laxity  which  would  not  be  possible  at 
the  present  day.  wlien  semi-annual  oflferings  are  required 
to  he  made  at  the  tombs  of  ancestors. 

Yet  it  is  to  Confucius  more  than  to  any  other  man  that 
China  is  indebted  for  the  strictness  with  winch  llic  rites 
of  this  worship  are  now  imiversal'y  (>IiS('r\>'(I  Making 
filial  piety  the  corner-stone  uf  his  ethical  system,  and 
only  vaguely  recc^izing  the  personality  of  the  supreme 
power,  whom  he  styles  T'ien,  or  Heaven,  he  was  led  to 


THE  WORSHIP  Of  ANCESTORS  269 

seek  in  the  worship  of  ancestors  for  the  rcligi(jus  sanctions 
reciiiired  to  loiifirm  it.  -  If,"  said  he,  "  funeral  rites  are 
l)crfornied  with  scrupulous  care,  and  remote  ancestors 
duly  recopmized,  the  virtues  of  the  people  w  ill  be  strength- 
en .!,""  riii,  i.s  a  maxim  which  lies  at  the  foundation  of 
the  religious  polity  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

The  more  objectionable  features  in  ancestral  worship 
are  not  due  to  Confucius,  and  derive  no  sanction  from  his 
authority;  I  mean  tlie  tmnslorination  of  the  deceased 
into  tutelar  divinities ;  and  tlie  absurd  doctrine  that  the 
destinies  of  the  family  are  determined  by  the  location  of 
the  family  tombs. 

The  first  of  these  springs  so  readily  from  the  human 
heart  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  look  for  its  origin  in  the 
teachini^s  of  any  particular  school.   It  is  touching  to  read 
on  a  tombstone  that  a  mourning  family,  having  laid  an 
aged  parent  in  his  last  resting-place,  beseech  his  spirit  to 
hover  over  them  as  a  protecting  power.    But  the  Chinese 
are  not  so  taught  by  Confucius,  who,  when  interrogated 
as  to  the  survival  of  the  soul,  refused  to  assert  that  it  pos- 
sesses any  conscious  existence  after  the  death  of  the  body  • 
and  whde  exhorting  to  sincerity  in  sacrifices,  went  no 
further  than  to  say,  "  Sacrifice  to  the  spirits  as  if  thev 
were  present."  ^ 
The  other  tenet  is  derivc.l  from  fn,_^-shui.  or  geomancy 
the  debasing  ofTshoot  of  a  degenerate  Taoism.   This  false 
scu  nce,  winch  bears  to  geology  a  relation  similar  to  that 
vvlnch  astrology  bears  to  astronomv,  ass.nnes  the  existence 
of  certain  influences  connected  with  the  configuration  of 
the  surface  which  aflFect  the  destinies  of  the  inhabitants 
of  any  given  locality.    These  must  be  taken  account  of 
m  selectmg  the  site  of  a  dwelling-house,  a  school,  a  shop 
or  even  a  stable,  and  especially  a  burial-place.   So  strong 
IS  the  conviction  on  this  last  point  that  families  who  are 


170  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


overtaken  by  a  scries  of  misfortunes  are  often  persuaded 
to  c'xluiiiic  the  bones  of  their  forefathers,  and  sbift  them, 
perhaps  more  than  once,  to  a  new  location,  in  boi)es  of 
hitting  on  the  focus  of  auspicious  influences.  This  super- 
stition is  even  carried  into  tlie  domain  of  politics;  so  tliat 
the  government,  un  suppressing  a  rebelliuiis  ciiictttc,  has 
been  known  to  order  the  destruction  of  the  family  tombs 
of  the  rebel  chief,  in  ord'T  to  strike  at  what  is  supposed 
to  be  tile  fountain-head  of  the  disturbing  influence. 

Buddhism  has  exerted  a  profound  influence  on  the 
worship  of  ancestors,  strenj^theiiing,  as  it  has  done,  the 
instinctive  faith  in  a  future  state,  and  introducing  an 
elaborate  Hturgy  for  the  repose  of  the  departed. 

RELATION  TO  SOCIAL  ORDER. 

"  In  China  filial  piety  is  the  bond  oi  .social  order." 

The  Imperial  house  sets  the  e.\amplc  in  w  hat  it  regards 
as  the  highest  form  of  filial  duty.  Not  only  are  separate 
shrines  erected  for  the  ancestors  of  the  reigning  family; 
the  Lmperor,  according  to  immemorial  usage,  ass(jciates 
them  with  Shang  Ti  the  Supreme  Ruler,  in  the  sacrifices 
which,  as  high-priest  of  the  Empire,  he  makes  at  the 
Temjile  of  Heaven. 

The  visitor  who  is  fortunate  enough  to  gain  access  to 
an  azure-colored  pagoda  on  the  north  of  the  principal 
altar  may  see  there  a  talilet  inscribed  with  the  name  of 
Sliang  Ti  occupying  the  central  place  of  honor,  while  tho 
tablets  of  ten  generations  of  the  reigning  family  are 
ranged  on  the  right  and  left.  Three  of  these  never  set 
foot  in  China,  nor  in  any  proper  sense  can  they  be  said  to 
'lave  occupied  the  Imperial  throne. 

Two  of  them  reigned  in  Lia  itung,  over  a  single  prov- 
ince, and  one  was  the  chief  of  a  roving  tribe  in  the  wilds 


THE  WORSHIP  OF  ANCESTORS 


of  Manchuria;  yet  on  the  occupation  of  China  by  their 

■descendant v;.  they  were  all  canonized  or  raised  by  Im- 
perial decree  to  the  dignity  of  Emperor. 

This  tendency  of  the  stream  of  honor  to  flow  upwards 
is  peculiar  to  China.  There  alone  is  it  possible  lur  a 
distinguished  son  to  lift  his  deceased  parents  out  of  ob- 
scurity, and  to  confer  on  their  names  the  reflected  lustre 
of  his  own  rank. 

^  It  is  not  easy  for  us  to  estimate  the  force  of  the  mo- 
tive which  is  thus  hroujrht  to  bear  on  a  generous  mind 
nurtured  under  tiie  ;  ■m  nce  of  such  traditions.  Knang 
tsung  yit  tsti,  "  r.e  careful  to  rcliect  glory  on  your  fore- 
fathers," is  a  hortatory  formula,  addressed  alike  to  the 
soldier  on  the  battle-field  and  the  student  in  the  halls 
of  learning. 

If,  as  President  Hayes  asserted  in  a  speech  at  San 
Francisco,  "  those  who  show  the  greatest  resi)ect  foi  their 
ancesto-s  arc  most  likely  to  be  distinguished  by  their  re- 
gard for  posterity,"  the  Chinese  ought  to  excel  all  men 
in  that  sentiment,  so  essential  to  the  well-being  of  a 
State;  certain  it  is  t'lat  their  worship  of  ancestors  fosters 
the  sentiment  in  a  most  effectual  n.anner. 

The  man  who  worships  his  forefathers,  and  believes  in 
their  conscious  existence,  naturally  desires  to  leave  off- 
spnng  who  shall  keep  the  fires  burning  on  the  family 
alur,  and  regale  his  own  spirit  with  periodical  oblations. 
Mencius  accordin.-rly  lays  it  down  as  a  maxim  that  "of 
the  three  oflfences  against  filial  piety,  the  greatest  is  to  be 
chddless  "—a  dictum  which  has  contributed  not  a  little 
to  promote  the  practice  of  ear  carriage,  and  the  con- 
sequent enormous  expansion  o  populat'on  of  China. 
Viewed  in  this  latter  aspect,  the  leflex  influence  of  ances- 
tral worship  may  be  considered  as  a  doubtful  boon  ;  but  as 
to  the  underlying  sentiment,  were  it  wisely  directed  to 


272 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


providing  fo-  the  w  tfare  of  coming  generations  as  well  as 
to  bringing  them  into  existence,  its  beneficial  effects 
would  be  of  inestimable  value. 

The  worship  of  ancestors  strengthens  the  tics  of  kin- 
ship, and  hinds  toj;ctlur  thusc  family  and  tribal  groups 
on  wliich  tile  government  so  mucii  relies  for  the  control 
of  its  individual  subjects.  V'le  family  temple  serves  for  a 
church,  tluatrc,  school-house,  council-room,  indeed  for 
all  tiie  varied  objects  required  by  the  exigencies  of  a  vil- 
lage community.  Domains  attached  to  it  for  the  main- 
tenance of  tlic  sacrifices  are  held  as  common  property; 
and  glebe-lands  are  often  appended  v.hich  are  devoted  to 
the  support  of  needy  members  of  the  widely  extended 
connection.  1  have  seen  a  town  of  twenty-five  tiKHisand 
people,  all  belonging  to  the  same  clan,  and  bearing  the 
same  family  name.  A  conspicuous  edifice  near  the  centre 
bore  the  name  of  Sliih  Tsu  Miao,  i.  e.  temple  of  our  first 
ancestor.  Here  the  divergent  branches  of  the  family  tree 
met  in  a  common  root;  and  all  the  citizens,  tmder  the 
cloud  of  incense  arising  from  a  common  sacrifice,  were 
led  to  feel  the  oneness  of  their  origin  ;  though  separated, 
it  night  he,  by  half  a  mill*  -  nium.  Sucli  a  village  resem- 
bles tiic  grow  th  of  a  hauyaii-tree — the  most  distant  column 
in  the  living  arcade,  thougli  resting  on  a  root  of  its  own, 
still  maintains  a  vital  connection  with  the  i)arent  stock. 

The  follow'ng  are  some  of  the  occasions  on  which 
formal  addresses  are  niaile  to  tlie  spirits  of  ancestors. 
When  a  youth  dons  the  cap  of  manhood,  he  is  taken  to 
the  ancestral  temple,  where  his  father  invokes  for  him 
the  guardian  care  of  his  forefathers.  "  that  !ie  may  be  a 
complete  man,  and  not  fall  below  tlieir  standard  of  ex- 
cellence." The  rite  is  extremely  impressive,  and  it  would 
lu^c  n.ithiug  (if  its  solemnity,  if,  in  lieu  of  the  invocation 
of  the  dead,  the  blessing  of  the  living  God  were  invoked. 


THE  WORSHIP  OF  ANCESTORS 


Wlicii  a  S(  n  or  (laiiphter  is  iKtrotlied,  tlie  parents  simply 
notify  their  ancestors,  mucli  as  they  do  their  living 
kindred,  but  without  asking:  for  tutelar  care.  When  a 
youth  goes  to  fetch  home  his  bride,  the  father  "  reveren- 
tially announces  the  fact  to  liis  ancestors,  with  offerini;s 
of  fruits  and  wine."  The  same  is  done  in  case  of  a  bride 
departing  for  her  new  home. 

In  the  marriage  ceremony,  the  '.jridegroom  presents  his 
wife  t )  his  ancestors  as  a  new  member  of  the  family,  and 
invokes  for  her  their  "  paternal  blessing." 

In  none  nf  the  forms  connected  with  funerals  is  there 
any  petition  for  blessinir  r  protection.  The  language  is 
that  of  a  simple  announcement,  accompanied  by  an  ex- 
pression of  profound  sorpjw.  lUit  in  the  periodical  serv- 
ices at  the  family  cemetery,  this  objectionable  element 
shows  itself,  the  worshipper  says — "  We  have  come  to 
sweej)  your  tombs  to  show  our  gratitude  for  your  pro- 
ttvling  care,  and  now  we  lieseech  you  to  accept  our  otTer- 
ings  and  make  our  posterity  i)rosperuus  and  happy."  With 
the  alteration  cf  a  few  words,  these  so-called  prayers 
might  be  recUiccd  to  mere  expressions  of  natural  affection. 
He  who  would  object  to  them  after  such  retrenchment, 
would  condemn  Cowper's  pathetic  address  to  his  mother's 
picture? — 

"  My  mother,  when  I  knew  that  thou  wast  dead, 
Say,  wast  tlioii  conscious  uf  the  tears  I  shed  ? 
Hovereil  thy  spirit  o'er  thy  sorrowing  son, 
Wretch  even  then,  life's  journey  just  begun  ?  " 

In  Hcrnani,  that  noble  tragedy  of  Victor  Hugo,  one  of 
the  most  impressive  scenes  is  an  act  of  worship  at  the 
tomb  of  an  ancestor. 

Don  Carlos,  afterwards  Charles  V.,  on  the  eve  of  elec- 


274 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHA/ 


tiiTi  to  tile  tlirom-  of  tlic  Geriiian  Empire,  enters  the  mati- 
soleiim  of  Cliarleniay,nc  at  Aix  la  ChapcUc,  and,  throwing 
himself  on  his  knees  before  the  tomb  of  the  great  mon- 
arch, he  pdiirs  (Hit  t!ii>  iirayer:  - 

"  Poitr  into  my  lieart  something  of  tliy  own  sublime 
si)irit :  si)eal<,  for  thy  son  is  waiting  to  hear.  Thou  dwell- 
e>i  in  ii;^Iit ;  oli,  semi  some  rays  upon  his  pathway." 

This,  it  may  be  said,  is  poetry,  not  relijjion ;  while  the 
worship  of  the  Chinese  is  religion,  '  ith  very  little  ])oetry. 

Aside  from  its  social  and  eeonomic  relations,  tins  f^irm 
of  Wdrsliip  exerts  a  relii^iniis  and  mor.il  inlliunce  ln'Nond 
any  ntlicr  system  of  doctrines  liitlierio  known  tu  the  Chi- 
nese Empire.  In  a  sceptical  world,  and  through  ages  not 
favored  with  that  revelation  wliich  has  "  hroiij^ht  life  and 
immortality  to  light,"  it  has  kept  alive  tiie  faith  in  a  future 
life.  The  orthotlox  son  of  Han  regards  himself  as  living 
and  actin;,'  in  the  si^dit  of  Ins  aiieeslors.  He  refers  Ins 
conduct  to  their  supposed  judgment,  and  the  comfort  of 
his  dying  hour  is  largely  determined  by  the  view  he  takes 
of  tile  kind  of  wekonie  he  is  likely  tO  receive  when  he 
meets  the  shades  of  his  forefathers. 

"  How  could  I  look  my  ancestors  in  the  face  if  I  should 
consent  to  such  a  proposition  ?  "  is  a  reply  which  many 
an  officer  has  given  to  a  temptation  to  betray  his  trust. 
A  motive  which  has  such  power  to  deter  from  baseness 
may  also  be  potent  as  a  stimulus  to  good ;  indeed,  in  re- 
spect to  moral  efficacy  it  would  appear  to  be  only  second 
to  that  of  faith  in  the  presence  of  an  all-seeing  Deity. 
How  effective  it  must  be  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact 
that  a  riiinese.  Iniit  on  woundinp  his  adversary  in  the 
keenest  point,  curses,  not  the  obnoxious  individual,  but  his 
ancestors;  because  respect  for  them  is  the  deepest  of  all 
his  religious  sentiments. 


THE  WORSHIP  OF  ANCESTORS  275 

KEtATION  TO  CHRISTIANITY. 

In  loticliision,  the  sinctaclc  of  a  great  nation  with  its 
wliok-  population  >,'atlicrc(I  round  tlif  altars  of  tlieir  an- 
cestors, tracing  tluir  lineage  up  to  the  hundredtli  genera- 
tion, and  recc^izing  the  ties  of  kindred  to  the  hundredth 
degree,  is  one  that  partakes  of  the  suhliine.  It  sup>;ests, 
moreover,  two  questions  of  no  little  interest:  1  May  there 
not  be  some  feature  in  the  Chinese  system  which  we  might 
with  advantage  en^'raft  on  onr  Western  ii\ ili/ati< .11  ?  z. 
In  propagating  Llirisuanity  in  China,  what  attitude  ought 
missionaries  to  assume  towards  that  venerable  institution  ? 

If  it  he  objected  that  a  sufticient  answer  to  both  is 
found  in  the  tendency  of  ancestral  worship  to  fetter  prog- 
ress by  pleilging  men  to  the  imitation  of  the  past,  we 
reply  that  such  an  effect  is  hy  no  means  necessary;  that 
Chinese  c  .iscrvatism  is  due  to  other  causes,  and  that  men 
of  the  present  generation  may  gratefully  acknowledge 
their  obligations  to  the  past,  while  omscious  that  they 
themselves  constitute  the  highest  stage  in  the  skvward  col- 
umn of  our  growing  humanity.  The  Vrilya,  we  are  told 
in  the  instructive  romance  of  Lord  Lytton  "  the  Coming 
Race  ".  with  all  their  advanced  ideas,  still  preserved  with 
reverence  the  portraits  of  their  early  ancestors  who  had 
not  yet  attained  the  human  shape. 

The  question  of  adopting  such  an  institution  is  quite 
distinct  from  that  of  uprootmg  it  from  a  soil  in  which  it 
has  been  prolific  of  blessings.  Is  it  merely  one  of  the 
many  phases  of  pagan  religion,  which,  however  they  may 
have  subserved  the  cause  of  morality  in  a  twilight  age. 
must  be  regarded  as  purely  obstructive  in  the  light  of 
Christian  day,  or  may  we  not  recognize  in  it  some  ele- 
ment of  permanent  good,  worthy  to  survive  all  changes 


tjb  THE  LORE  OK  CA I  HAY 

in  the  national  fai.h?  As  a  .natt.r  ..f  fact,  all  missinn- 
i„„iu>  havr  uk.n  the  lormcr  vicvv-cxcq,t  tlu.sc 
Jc.u.ts  who  hrsl  mtr.ul«cc<t  Christianity  to  the  Chmese 
people.  Perceiving  un.nlstaUal.le  cvMnu.-  that  filial  rcv- 
ercnee  had  ^n-un  inf  .  i.lolatruus  devotion,  and  niemonal 
tablets  become  converted  nito  objects  of  i.lolatrou*  hem- 
ace.  they  have  declared  war  against  the  entire  sys^tem. 

1,  is   I  o.nu-..       ..^pin-ns  circumstance  to  find  the 
Jesuits  tolerating  the  traditional  rites,  while  Domimcan 
and  Franciscan.  Greek  and  Protestant,  have  all  concurred 
in  rejecting  them.    Vet  1  cannot  bring  myself  to  feel  that 
the  latter  have  been  wholly  right,  or  the  former  altogether 
wrong.   Had  the  policy  of  the  Jesuits  been  sanctioned  by 
the  Popes,  the  ..dhercu.  of  the  Church  of  Rnme  imght 
bave  been  spared  i  century  of  persecution,  an<l  it  is  prob- 
able lha.  the  religion  of  India  might  have  been  supplanted 
by  that  of  Kuropc;  for  nothing  has  ever  aroused  such 
active  opposition  to  Christianity  as  the  discovery  that  it 
stands  in  irreconcilable  antagonism  to  the  worship  of  an- 
cestors.  The  decision  of  the  Sovcr.i,ni  Pontiff  conim.t- 
ting  his  Church  to  this  position  reninids  us  by 
of  the  unfortunate  reply  of  a  Saxon  missionary  to  Radl)od. 
the  King  of  Friesland.   The  King,  with  one  foot  in  the 
baptismal  font,  as  a  last  question,  asked  the  nussionary 
whether  he  nmst  think  of  his  ancestors  as  m  heaven  or 
in  hell.  "  In  hell."  was  the  reply.  "  Then  I  shall  go  with 
mv  l  .tlur^"  cxclai.ne.l  the  King,  as  be  drew  back  and 
refused  the  Christian  ri-.   Thousands  of  Chinese  on  the 
brink  of  a  Christian  profession  have  been  held  back  by  a 

similar  motive.  ,. 

The  question.  I  admit,  is  not  altogether  one  of  expedt- 
encv  Yet,  in  view  of  all  our  obligations  to  truth  and 
righteousness,  there  arP-'ir.  to  me  to  bo  no  necessity  for 
pUcing  them  in  this  cruel  dilemma.   The  idolatrous  ele- 


I  Ht  WORSHIP  OK  ANCKS  IORS 


runts  itivnlvcd  in  :iiu-(  stral  \\nr>lii|)  arc,  as  we  Iiavo  si'i-n, 
ixcrcscciiecs,  iioi  ni  ilic  essence  uf  the  system.  \\  by  not 
prune  them  off  and  retain  a'.;  that  is  i;ood  and  beautiful 
in  the  institution'-'  A  taMet  inscrilinl  witli  a  naiiu-  anil 
a  date  is  in  itself  a  simple  memorial  nut  more  dangerous 
than  the  urns  of  ashes  which  creniationists  are  supposed 
to  prist  t\.  Ill  their  dwellings,  an>l  not  half  so  much  so  as 
pictures  and  statues;  why  should  the  native  convert  be 
required  to  surrender  or  destroy  it?  The  semi-annual 
visit  tc  the  famil>  i  •  'iirtery  is  a  becoming  act  '  '  --si.ect 
to  the  dead:  why  should  that  be  forbidden?  A.  fer- 
inps  of  meats  and  drinks,  why  should  thej  ^  should 

tin  y  not— be  replaced  by  bouquets  of  flowe  the  peri- 
odical planting  of  tlowir-seeils  and  tlowi.  .g  shrubs? 
Even  the  act  of  prostration  before  the  tomb  or  tablet  can 
hardly  be  regarded  as  objectionable  in  a  country  where 
I  liildri  n  are  required  to  kneel  before  their  living  parents. 
1  wo  things  excite  my  poignant  grief  when  1  look  back  to 
the  mistakes  of  the  past — one.  the  exclusion  of  a  church 
tiiember  for  coniplv  ing  witli  the  onlinarv  marriage  cere- 
mony and  kneeling  before  a  strip  of  paper  in.scribed  with 
thf  five  objects  of  veneration,  the  other  insisting  on 
the  s  render  of  .T-.cesttal  tablet-;  as  a  proof  of  sincerity 
on  the  part  of  an  applicant  for  baptism.  1  had  no  right 
to  impose  such  a  test  in  cither  case. 

'i'hat  which  is  really  objectionable  is  geomancy  and  the 
invocation  of  departed  spirits.  The  simplest  ideas  of 
science  are  sufficient  to  dispel  the  one  form  of  supersti- 
tion, and  a  very  small  amount  of  religious  knowledge  sup- 
plies an  cflTiTfiial  .-nitidote  to  the  other.  The  worsliip  of 
ancestors  wuiiKl  thus  be  restored  to  the  state  in  which 
Confucius  left  it,  or  rather  to  that  in  which  he  himself 
practised  it— ns  nicn-lv  a  sv  ^tctn  of  cdinmemorative  rites. 

Whatever  party  takes  this  position      !:  .  n.  e  an  im- 


a78  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

mense  advantage  in  the  competition  for  '^""^.^^^^  ^^f" 
Tnaries  may 'never  accept  it.    But  the  natjve  C^^^^^^^^^^ 
cannot  be  expectc.l  to  follow  servilely  m  the  footsteps  of 
its  foreign  leaders.    When  the  higher  f  sscs  come  o 
embrace  Christianity  in  great  numbers,  they  w.U  reachly 
e^ve  behind  them  their  Buddhism  and  their  Taoism  but 
he  worship  of  ancestors  they  will  never  consent  to 
abandon,  though  they  may  submit  to  ^orne  ^^r^^^^- 
cations  as  those  which  1  have  endeavored  to  indicate. 


BOOK  IV 
Education  in  China 


XV* 


SCHOOL  AND  FAMILY  TRAINING 

/.  Influence  on  national  character 

THE  interest  f>f  the  inquiry  on  whicli  we  arc  about 
to  enter  is  based  on  the  assumption  that  differ- 
ences of  national  character  are  mainlv  due  to 
the  influence  of  education.  Tliis  we  conceive  to  be  true 
except  in  extreme  cases,  such  as  those  of  the  inhabitants 
of  torrid  or  frigid  regions,  where  everything  succumbs 
to  the  tyranny  of  physical  forces.  In  such  situations 
chmate  shapes  education,  as,  according  to  Montesquieu, 
It  determines  morals  and  dictates  laws.  But  in  milder 
latitudes  the  difference  of  physical  surroundings  is  an 

♦This  chapter  was  first  published  in  1877  as  a  pamphlet,  by 
the  United  States  Bureau  o(  Education.  The  following  letter 
of  the  late  Mr.  Avery,  United  States  Minister  to  China,  may 

•  e  to  explain  its  origin : 

"  To  the  Commissioner  of  Education: 

"SiR,-Before  my  departure  for  China,  I  received  from  you 
a  retitiot  to  secure  for  use  by  your  Bureau  an  accurate  and  full 
statoine.it  of  .he  methods  of  education  in  China,  and  '  the  rela- 
tion ot  tlie  methods  to  the  failure  of  their  civilization' 

"  On  my  arrival  at  Peking,  bearing  your  request  in  mind  I 
was  confirmed  in  the  opinion  entertained  before,  that  to  no  one 
else  could  I  apply  for  the  information  desired  uiih  so  much 
propriety  as  to  Dr.  W.  A.  P.  .Martin,  our  fellow-countryman, 
president  of  the  ImiHri.-,!  COIege  for  Western  Science  at  Pe- 
king, whose  long  residence  in  China,  scholarly  knowledge  of 

a8i 


aSx  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

almost  inappreciable  element  in  the  formation  of  charac- 
ter in  comparison  with  influences  of  an  intellectual  and 
moral  kind.  Much,  for  example,  is  said  about  the  in- 
spiration of  mountain  scenery— an  inspiration  felt  nu.st 
sensibly,  if  not  most  effeclively,  by  tlu.se  who  see  the 
mountains  lea.si  frequently :  but.  as  John  Foster  remarks, 
the  character  of  a  lad  brought  up  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps 
is  a  tiiousan.lf..l.l  more  alTecte.l  by  the  conipanmns  with 
whom  he  associates  than  by  the  mountains  that  rear  their 
heads  above  his  dwelling. 

The  peculiar  character  of  the  Chinese— for  they  have 
a  character  which  is  one  and  distinct— is  not  to  be  ac- 
counted for  by  their  r  sidence  in  great  plains,  for  half 
the  empire  is  mountaii.ous.  Neither  is  it  to  be  ascribed 
to  their  rice  diet,  as  rice  is  a  luxury  in  which  few  of  the 
northern  population  are  ai^le  to  indulge.  Still  less  is  it 
to  be  referred  to  the  influence  of  climate,  for  they  spread 
over  a  broad  belt  in  their  own  country,  emigrate  in  all 
directions,  and  flourish  in  every  zone.  It  is  not  even  ex- 
plained by  the  unity  and  persistency  of  an  original  type, 
for  in  their  earlier  career  they  absorbed  and  assimilated 
several  other  races,  while  history  shows  that  at  different 
epochs  their  own  character  has  undergone  remarkable 

Chinese  literature,  and  familiar  acquaintance  with  native  methods 
of  education  must  be  well  known  to  you. 

"  Dr  Martin,  at  my  solicitation,  agreed  to  furnish  a  paper  on 
the  M.hject  you  indicated,  which  I  have  just  received  frotn  his 
liands  and  ii-w  forward  to  you  through  the  courtesy  of  the 
State  Department.  I  scarcely  need  add  that  you  will  find  Jt 
alike  interesting  and  valuable. 

"  I  am,  sir. 

"  Your  obedient  servant. 

"  Benj.  p.  Aveby. 

"  Hon.  John  Eaton. 
"Commissioner  of  Education." 


SCHOOL  AND  FAMILY  TRAINING  aSj 

clianges.    The  true  secret  of  this  phenomenon  is  the 

pri'si-nco  of  an  apency  which,  tinder  our  own  eyes,  has 
shown  itself  sufficiently  powerful  to  transform  the  turbu- 
lent nomadic  Manchu  into  the  most  Chinese  of  the  in- 
Iiahitaius  of  the  Middle  Kingdom.  The  general  name 
for  that  agency,  which  includes  a  thousand  elements,  is 
education.  It  is  education  iliat  has  imparted  a  uniform 
stamp  to  the  Chinese  under  every  variety  of  physical 
condition;  just  as  the  successive  sheets  of  paper  applied 
to  an  engraving  bring  away,  substantially,  the  same  im- 
pression, notwithstanding  diflferences  in  the  quality  of 
the  material. 

In  this  wide  sense  we  shall  not  attempt  to  treat  the 
subject,  though  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  remark  that 
the  (  !  „use  themselves  employ  a  word  which  answers  to 
education  with  a  similar  latitude.  They  say,  for  instance, 
that  the  education  of  a  child  l)cgins  before  its  birth.  The 
women  of  ancient  times,  sa>-  they,  in  every  movement  had 
regard  to  its  effect  on  the  character  of  their  offspring. 
This  they  denominate  chiao.  reminding  us  of  what  Gce- 
tlie  te'Is  us  in  his  autobiography  of  certain  antecedents 
which  had  their  effect  in  imparting  to  him 

"  That  concord  of  harmonious  powers 
Which  forms  the  soul  of  happiness." 

All  this,  whatever  its  value,  belongs  to  piiysical  discipline. 
We  shall  not  go  so  tar  back  in  the  history  of  our  typical 
Chinese,  but.  confining  ourselves  strictly  to  tlie  dq)art- 
ment  of  intellectual  influences,  take  him  at  the  time  when 
the  ynnn-  i,!ea  first  begins  to  shoot,  and  trace  him 
through  the  several  stages  of  his  development  until  he 
emerges  a  full-fledged  Academician.* 

♦  For  an  account   of  the   Imperial   Hanlin   Academy,  see 
chapter  III. 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


//.  Home  education 
With  us  the  family  is  thv  first  school.  Not  only  is  it 
licro  tliat  we  make  the  most  important  of  our  linguistic 
aciuircniLnis.  but  with  parents  who  are  themselves  culti- 
vated there  is  generally  a  iHT>i>tent  elTurl  tu  >tunulate 
tlie  mental  Rrowtli  of  their  •ilfspring.  to  develop  reason, 
form  taste,  and  inviyuraie  the  memory. 

In  many  instances  parental  vanity  api>lies  a  spur  where 
the  curl,  nu-ht  to  be  employed,  and  a  sickly  i)recocity  is 
the  result;  but  in  general  a  judicious  slinuilus  addressed 
to  the  mind  is  no  detriment  to  the  body,  and  it  is  doubt- 
less to  the  difference  of  <l(.nH>tic  traitiiti^  rather  than  to 
race  that  we  are  to  ascribe  tlie  early  awakiui;  oi  the  men- 
tal powers  of  European  children  as  compared  with  those 
of  China.  The  Chinese  have,  it  is  true,  tlieir  stories  of 
infant  precocity— their  Barretiers  and  Lliattertons.  They 
tell  of  Li  iMu,  who.  at  the  age  of  seven,  was  thought 
worthy  of  the  degree  oi  Chin  Skill,  or  the  literary 
ddctnr'ate,  and  .>f  I 'sic  Chin,  the  "divine  child," 
who.  at  the  aj,'e  of  ten,  composed  a  volume  of  poems, 
still  in  use  as  a  juvenile  text-book.  But  these  are  nut 
merely  exceptions;  they  are  exceptions  of  rarer  occur- 
rence than  among  us. 

Chinese  children  do  not  get  their  bands  and  feet  as 
■,oon  as  ours,  because,  in  the  first  mouths  of  their  exist- 
ence, they  are  tightly  ■  uhed  and  afterwards  overloaded 
with  cumbrous  garn  The  reason  for  their  tardier 

mental  d»        -nent  ^e  anal-.-nns.    European  chil- 

dren exhiu.c  more  ...  at  five  than  Chinese  children 
at  twice  that  age.  ms  is  not  a  partial  judgment,  nor  is 
the  fact  to  be  accounted  for  by  a  differenct'  of  race;  tor 
in  mental  cap-city  the  Chinese  are,  in  my  opinion,  iiul 
"  -erior  to  the  "  most  favored  nation."  Deprive  our 
rseries  of  those  speaking  pictures  that  say  so  much  to 


SCHOOL  AND  FAMILY  TRAINING  185 

the  infant  eye;  of  infant  poems,  such  as  those  of  Watts 

and  [Jarl-anM;  «,f  the  swirt  music  that  impresses  th-.^e 
poems  uii  liic  infant  mind;  mure  than  all,  take  away  those 
Bihie  stories  and  scraps  of  history  which  excite  a  thirst 
for  the  hooks  that  L-oiitain  them,  and  what  a  check  upon 
mental  growth,  what  a  deiluction  from  the  happiness  of 
childhood !  With  us  tlic  dawn  of  knowledge  precedes  the 
use  of  books,  as  the  rays  of  morniiii;.  refracted  by  the 
atmosphere  and  glowing  with  rosy  hues,  anticipate  the 
rising  of  the  sun.  In  China  there  is  no  such  accommo- 
dafmg  medium,  no  such  blushing  aurora.  The  language 
of  the  fireside  is  not  the  language  of  the  hooks. 

Mothers  and  nurses  are  not  taught  t(j  read;  nor  are 
fathers  le?s  inclined  than  with  us  to  leave  tlie  work  of 
instruction  to  be  begun  by  the  professional  teacher.  This 
they  are  the  more  disposed  to  do,  as  an  ancient  usage  * 
prohibits  a  parent  being  the  instructor  of  his  own  chil- 
dren ;  still  some  fathers,  yielding  to  better  instincts,  do 
take  a  jjri.le  in  teaching  their  infant  sons;  and  some 
mothers,  whose  exceptional  culture  makes  them  shine 
like  stars  in  tlu'  night  of  female  ignorance,  have  imparted 
to  their  chilvlren  the  first  impulse  in  a  literary  career, 

How  many  of  those  who  have  obtained  seats  on  the 
literary  f  )i_\  nipus  were  favored  with  such  early  advan- 
tages it  is  in;possib!e  to  ascertain.  That  the  number  is 
considerable,  we  cannot  (loul)t.  W  e  remember  hearing  of 
two  .M-hnlars  in  Cheki.uig  who  were  not  only  taught  the 
mechanical  art  of  writing,  hut  the  hi-lu  r  aii  of  compo- 
sition, by  an  educated  mother,  both  of  them  winning  the 
honors  of  the  Academy. 

As  another  instance  of  the  same  kind,  the  .Memoirs  of 
the  Academy  embalm  the  memory  of  such  a  noble  mother 
along  with  the  name  of  her  illustrious  son;  an<l  'e 
*  "  They  exchanged  their  sons  for  education."  says  an  old  b  ok. 


a86  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


Emperor  Ch'ten  Lunp,  witli  vtrniilinii  pencil,  cd.lirates 
the  talints  of  liie  o'  "  and  tin-  virtues  of  the  other. 

The  Kniperor  says  of  (,'hien  Chen  Chen,  "  He  drew  his 
leaminfT  from  a  hidden  source,  a  virtuous  mother  impart- 
ing to  him  ]uT  classic  lore."  In  ihc  prose  obituary  pre- 
fixed to  tlie  verses,  his  Majesty  says,  "  Chien's  mother. 
Lady  Chen,  was  skilled  in  ornamental  writing.  In  his 
hovluHul  it  was  site  who  inspired  and  directed  his  sUuiics. 
He  had  a  painting  which  represented  his  mother  holding 
a  distaff  and  at  the  same  time  explaining  to  him  the 
classic  page.  1  admired  it.  and  inscril)ed  on  it  a  coni- 
phmcntary  verse  "—A  graceiul  tribute  from  an  exalted 
hand,  worth  more,  in  the  estimation  of  the  Chinese,  than 
all  the  marble  or  granite  that  might  be  heaped  upon  her 
sepulchre. 

///.  Commencement  of  '  '  ooi  life 

In  general,  however,  a  Chinese  is  not  a  hot-bed 

for  the  development  of  mind.  Nature  is  left  to  take  her 
own  time,  and  tlie  cliild  vetietatc?  until  he  completes 
his  seventh  or  eighth  year.  The  almanac  is  then  con- 
sulted, and  a  lucky  day  chosen  for  inducting  the  la.l  into 
a  life  of  studv.  (  lad  in  festal  robe,  with  tassclled  cap, 
and  looking  a  mandarin  in  small,  he  sets  out  for  the 
^  illafje  school,  his  face  beaming  with  the  happy  assur- 
ance" ihat  all  the  stars  are  sheddin-  kindly  influence, 
and  his  friends  predicting  that  he  will  end  his  career 
in  the  Imperial  Academy.  On  entering  the  room,  he  per- 
forms two  acts  of  worship :  the  first  is  to  prostrate  him- 
self before  a  picture  of  the  Great  Sage,  who  is  venerated 
as  the  fountain  of  wisdom,  but  is  not  supposed  to  exercise 
ovpr  his  votaries  anything  like  a  tutelar  supervision.  The 
second  is  to  salute  with  the  same  forms,  and  almost  equal 


SCHOOL  AND  FAMILY  TRAINING  287 

R  v.  riiui-,  the  teacher  who  is  to  guide  his  inexperienced 
feet  in  tlie  pathway  to  knowledge.    In  no  country  is  tlie 
office  of  teacher  more  revered.    Not  only  is  t.'-.'  hving 
i'lstt  ictor  saluted  with  forms  of  profoundest  respect, 
but  the  very  name  of  teaclier.  taken  in  the  abstract,  is  an 
object  of  almost  idolatrous  homage.    On  certain  occa- 
sions it  is  inscribed  on  a  tablet  in  connection  with  the 
characters  for  heaven,  earth,  prinre,  and  parents,  as  one 
of  the  five  chief  objects  of  veneration,  and  worshipped 
with  solemn  rites.  This  is  a  relic  of  the  primitive  period, 
when  books  were  few  and  the  student  dependent  for 
everything  on  the  oral  teaching  of  his  sapient  master. 
In  those  days,  in  Eastern  as  well  as  Western  Asia  and 
Greece,  schools  were  peripatetic,  or  (as  Jeremy  Taylor 
says  of  the  Church  in  his  time)  ambulatory.  Disciples 
were  wont  to  attend  their  master  by  day  and  night,  and 
follow  him  on  his  peregrinations  from  State  to  State,  in 
order  to  catch  and  treasure  up  his  most  casual  discourses. 

As  to  the  pursuit  of  knowledge,  they  were  at  a  great 
disadvantage  compared  with  modem  students,  whose 
libraries  contain  Ixxiks  by  the  thousand,  while  their  living 
teachers  are  counted  by  the  score  Yet  the  student  life 
of  those  days  was  not  without  its  compensating  circum- 
stances. Practical  morality,  the  formation  of  character, 
was  the  great  object,  intellectual  discipline  being  deemed 
subordinate;  and  in  such  a  state  of  society  physical  cul- 
ture was.  of  course,  not  neglected.  The  personal  char- 
acter of  the  teacher  made  a  profound  impression  on  his 
pupils,  inspiring  them  with  ardor  in  the  pursuit  of  virtue; 
while  the  necessity  of  learning  by  question  and  answer 
excited  a  spirit  of  inquiry  and  favored  originality  of 
thought.  But  now  all  this  is  changed,  and  the  names  and 
forms  continue  without  the  reality. 
A  man  who  never  had  a  dozen  thoughts  in  all  his  life 


a88  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


sits  in  the  seat  of  the  philosnphers  and  nccivcs  with 
solemn  ceremony  the  homage  of  his  disciples.  And  why 
not?  For  even.-  step  in  the  process  of  teachinp  is  fixed 
by  unalteral)le  usaj^c.  So  iiuicli  is  tliis  tlio  case  lluit  in 
dcscriljin^'  one  school  I  describe  all,  and  in  tracing  the 
steps  of  one  student  I  point  out  the  course  of  all;  for 
in  China  there  are  no  new  methods  or  short  roads. 

Ill  otluT  countries,  a  teacher,  even  in  the  primary 
course,  finds  room  for  tact  and  originality.  In  those 
who  dislike  study  a  love  of  it  is  to  be  inspired  by  making 
■■  kiiowIc(lf,'c  pleasant  to  the  ta^tc,"  and  the  dull  appre- 
hension is  to  be  awakened  by  striking  and  apt  illustra- 
tions;  while,  to  the  eaprer  and  industrious,  "  stepc  to 
Parna>sus  "  ,ir  if  iH't  made  as\ .  at  least  to  be  pointeil 
out  so  clearly  that  they  shall  waste  no  strength  in  climb- 
ing by  wrong  paths.  In  China  there  is  nothing  of  the 
kind.  The  land  of  uniformity,  all  processes  in  arts  and 
letters  arc  as  much  fixed  by  universal  custom  as  is  the  cut 
of  their  garments  or  the  mode  of  wearing  their  hair. 
The  pupils  all  tread  t'.e  path  trodden  by  their  ancestors 
of  a  liii.u  an  ;  years  r-s^o,  imr  has  it.  grown  smoother 
by  the  attrition  of  so  many  feet. 

IV.  Stages  of  study 

The  undergraduate  course  may  be  divided  into  three 

stages,  in  each  of  which  there  are  two  leading  studies : 

In  the  first,  the  occupations  of  the  student  are  com- 
mitting to  memory  (not  reading)  the  canonical  books 
and  writing  an  infinitude  of  diversely  formed  characters 
as  a  manual  exercise. 

In  the  second,  they  are  the  translation  of  his  text- 
books (i.  e.  reading),  and  lessons  in  composition. 


SCHOOL  AND  FAMILY  TRAINING  389 

In  the  third,  they  are  belles-lettres  and  the  composition 
of  essays. 

Nothing  could  1.C  more  dreary  tlian  the  labors  of  the 
first  stage.    The  pupil  comes  to  school,  as  one  of  his 
I'uuks  tdls  Iiim.  -a  rough  gem,  t!iat  n.niiros  grind- 
ing;" but  the  process  is  slow  and  painful.    His  books 
are  in  a  dead  language,  for  in  every  jiart  of  tlie  Empire 
tlie  style  of  literary  compositimi  i.-,  so  far  removed  from 
that  of  the  veniacular  spiicii  ("lat  l,u.,ks,  wlun  read 
aloud,  arc  unintelligible  even  to  the  ear  of  the  educated, 
.iiid  the  soimds  of  tlieir  characters  convey  absolutely  no 
meaning  to  the  mind  of  a  beginner.    .Vor,  as  a  getu  ral 
thing,  is  any  effort  made  to  give  them  life  by  imparting 
glimpses  of  tlu  ir  siMiiilkation.    The  whole  of  this  first 
stage  is  a  dead  lift  of  memory,  unalleviated  by  the 
exercise  of  any  other  faculty.     It  is  something  hke 
what  we  should  have  in  our  Western  schools  if  our  youth 
uei  '  restrict.d  to  the  stiuly  of  I  atiii  as  their  sole  occu- 
pati(  n,  and  required  to  stow  away  in  their  memory  the 
COTitents  of  the  principal  classics  befo-  •  learning  a  word 
of  their  mtaiiiii;,'. 

The  whole  of  the  hour  Books  and  the  greater  part  of 
the  Five  Classics  are  usually  gone  through  in  this 
manner,  four  or  five  years  being  allotted  to  the  cheerless 
task.   During  all  this  time  the  mind  has  not  been  enriched 
by  a  single  idea.    To  get  words  at  the  tongue's  end  and 
characters  r-.;  the  penciFs  point  is  the  sole  object  of  this 
inhial  discipline.    It  would  seem,  indeed,  as  if  the  wise 
ancients  who  devised  it  had  dreaded  nothing  so  much  as 
early  development,  and,  like  prudent  horticulturists,  re- 
sorted to  this  method  for  tlte  purpose  of  heapint,-  sn,,\v 
and  ic»  around  the  roots  of  the  young  plain  t(i  t^uard 
against  its  premature  blossoming.   All  the  arrangements 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


of  the  system  arc  admiraMv  a.laptcd  to  form  a  safeguard 
against  precocity.  V.wn  tlic  ^timnhis  of  companionship 
in  study  is  usually  denied,  the  advaiuai,ns  resulting  from 
the  formation  of  classes  being  m  Utile  appreciated  as 
those  of  other  lahor-saving  Puicliinery.  Each  pupil  reads 
and  writes  alone,  the  penalty  for  failure  being  so  many 
blows  with  the  ferule  or  kneeling  for  so  many  minutes 
on  the  rouRh  brick  pavement  whir!;  scn,cs  for  a  floor. 

At  this  period  fear  is  the  strongest  motive  addressed  to 
the  mind  of  the  scholar ;  nor  is  it  easy  to  say  how  large  a 
share  this  stem  discipline  has  in  Riving  him  his  first 
lesson  in  political  duty— viz.,  that  of  unquestioning  sub- 
mission— and  in  rendering  him  cringinp  and  pliant  to- 
wards oflkial  sujicriors.  Those  sallies  of  iiinocrnt  huinor 
and  venial  mischief  so  common  in  Western  schools  are 
rarely  witnessed  in  China. 

A  practical  joke  in  which  the  scholars  tndulge.l  at  the 
ixpense  of  their  teacher  I  have  seen  represented  in  a 
picture,  but  never  in  real  life.  This  picture,  the  most 
graphtc  I  ever  saw  from  a  Chinese  pencil,  adorns  the 
walls  of  a  monastery  at  the  Western  Hi!!s,  near  r<'.<infr. 
It  represents  a  village  school,  the  master  asleep  in  his 
chair  and  the  pupils  playing  various  pranks,  the  least  of 
whicii.  if  the  tyrant  should  happen  to  awake,  would 
bring  down  hi-  terrible  baton.  But,  notwithstanding  the 
ilanger  to  which  they  expose  themselves,  two  of  the 
young  unterrified  stand  behird  the  throne,  threatening 
to  awake  the  sleeper  by  tickling  his  ear  with  the  tail  of  a 
scorpion. 

So  foreign,  indeed,  is  this  scene  to  the  habits  of 
Chinese  schoolboys  that  I  feel  compelled  to  take  it  in  a 
mystic  rather  than  a  literal  signification.  The  master 
is  reason,  the  boys  are  the  passions,  and  the  scorpion  con- 
science,   if  passion  gets  at  the  ear  of  the  soul  while 


dCHOOL  AND  FAMILY  TRAINING  agi 

reason  sleep*,  the  stings  of  conscience  arc  sure  to  follow 
— those 

"Paufg  that  pay  joy's  spendthrift  thrill 
With  bitter  usury." 

Thus  utulcrstood.  it  conveys  a  moral  alilte  worthy  of 
Christian  or  Buddhist  ethics. 

St  vt  rity  is  aiioiintcil  the  first  virttif  in  n  pcdaKOgue; 
anil  its  opposite  is  not  kindness,  but  ncfjli^^'nce  In 
family  schix)ls,  where  the  teacher  is  well  watched,  lie  is 
reasonahly  diligent  and  sufficiently  severe  to  satisfy  the 
most  exacting  of  his  jjatnms.  In  others,  and  partiiiilnrly 
in  charity-schools,  the  portrait  of  Squeers  in  Nicholas 
Nicklehy  would  be  no  caricature.  With  mn(!ificati(>ns 
and  iinprnvements  in  the  ciirrienhiin,  a  teacher  lias  noth 
in),'  to  do.  His  business  is  to  keep  the  mill  goinj,'.  ai.d 
the  time-honored  argument  a  posteriori  is  the  only  per- 
suasion lie  cares  to  appeal  to. 

This  arctic  winter  of  monotonous  toil  once  passed,  a 
more  auspicious  season  dawns  on  the  youthful  under- 
standing. The  key  of  the  Cabala  which  he  has  been  so 
long  and  so  blindly  acquiring  is  put  into  his  hands.  He 
is  initiated  in  the  translation  and  exposition  of  those 
sacred  books  which  he  had  previously  stored  awav  in  '  s 
memory,  as  if  apprehensive  lest  another  tyrant  of  Chin 
might  attempt  their  destruction.  The  light,  however, 
is  let  in  but  siiariiij^ly,  as  it  were,  through  chinks  and 
riffs  in  the  long  dark  passage.  A  simple  character  here 
and  there  is  explained,  and  then,  it  may  be  after  the  lapse 
of  a  year  or  two,  the  teacher  proceeds  to  the  explication 
of  entire  sentences.  Now  for  fbc  first  time  the  mind  of 
the  student  begins  to  take  in  the  thoughts  of  those  he 
has  been  taught  to  regard  as  the  oracles  of  wisdom.  His 
dormant  faculties  wake  into  sudden  life,  and,  as  it  would 


292 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


sci'in,  iinfci'il  tlK'  tiiori,'  rapidlv  in  consequence  of  their 
protracted  liihi  ■  natii >n      I  n  liiin  ii  i^  like 

"  Tlu-  fhirious  liinir  when  ^iirmg  gues  forth 
U'cr  tile  bkak  nn luiitain ^  nf  the  shadowy  north, 
Ami  with  one  radiant  glance,  one  magic  breath, 
Wakes  all  things  lovely  from  the  sleep  of  death." 

Tlie  value  of  this  exercise  can  hardly  he  overestimated. 
Wlicn  jndicionsly  cnipkncd.  it  docs  for  tlie  Cliinisc  what 
translation  into  and  out  of  the  dead  lanj^uages  of  tlie 
West  does  for  us.  It  calls  into  play  tnetnory,  judgment, 
taste,  and  f:;ives  liim  a  command  of  his  own  vernacular 
which,  it  is  safe  to  assert,  he  would  never  acquire  in  any 
other  way.  Yet  even  here  I  am  not  ahle  to  bestow  un- 
qualified commenchitioii.  I'liis  portion  of  the  course 
is  rendered  too  ea.sy  ;  as  much  too  easy  as  the  preceding  is 
too  difficult.  Instead  of  re(iniritiL:  a  lad,  dictionary  in 
hand,  to  quarry  out  the  meanisii,'  of  his  aiulior,  the  teacher 
reads  the  lesson  for  him,  and  demands  of  him  nothing 
more  than  a  faithful  reproduction  of  tliat  wliich  he  has 
received;  meiii"ry  attain,  sheer  niemor\' !  Desirahle  as 
this  nietliod  mii^lit  he  f<ir  l>eL;iiiners,  when  continued,  as 
the  Chinese  do,  througii  the  whole  course,  it  has  the 
inevitable  effect  of  impairing  independence  of  judgment 
and  fertiki:  ,  of  in\entirin — (]ualiiies  for  which  Ciiinese 
scholars  are  hy  no  means  remarkahlc,  an<l  for  the  de- 
ficiency of  which  they  are,  no  doubt,  indebted  to  this  error 
of  sckdnlroom  discipline. 

Sinuiltaneously  with  a  translation  the  student  is  initi- 
ated in  the  art  of  composition — an  art  which,  in  any  lan- 
guage, yields  ti)  nothing  hu;  ])raciice.  In  Chinese  it  is  he- 
set  with  difificulties  of  a  peculiar  kind.  In  the  majority  of 
cultivated  languages  the  syntax  is  governed  hy  rules, 
while  inflections,  like  mortise  and  tenon,  facilitate  the 
structure  of  the  sentence. 


SCHOOL  AND  FAMILY  TRAINING  293 

Not  so  in  this  most  primitive  form  of  human  speech. 

VcHis  nnd  nouns  arc  undistinpuislud  In-  anv  iliffcrcnce 
of  form,  the  verb  having  no  voice,  mood,  or  tense,  and 
the  noun  neither  gender,  number,  nor  case.  Collo- 
cati.m  U  everytliinq-;  it  creates  tlic  parts  of  speech  and 
determines  the  signification  of  cliaractcrs.  Tlic  very 
simphcity  of  the  linguistic  structure  thus  proves  a  source 
of  (lifficiilfy,  j)reventinp  tlie  format  inn  of  any  such  sys- 
tems of  grammatical  rules  as  abound  in  most  inflected 
languages,  and  throwing  the  burden  of  acquisition  on 
the  imit'iiive  faculty;  the  r^roblcm  being,  not  the  erection 
of  a  fabric  from  parts  ■  liich  are  adjusted  and  marked, 
but  the  building  of  an  arch  with  cobble-stones. 

If  these  unifcrm,  unclassified  atoms  were  indifferent 
to  position,  the  lalxir  nf  arrangement  would  be  nothing, 
and  style  impossible.    But  most  of  them  appear  to  be 
endowed  with  a  kind  of  mysterious  polarity  which  con- 
trols their  collocation,  and  renders  them  incapable  of  com- 
panionship except  witli  certain  characters,  the  choice  of 
which  would  seem  to  be  altogether  arbitrary.   The  origin 
of  this  peculiarii  v  is  not  difficult  to  discover.    In  this,  as 
in  other  things  an.iong  the  Chinese,  usage  has  become 
law.    Combinations  which  wore  accidental  or  optional 
with  the  model  writers  of  anti(|iiiiy,  and  even  their  errors, 
have,  to  their  imitative  posterity,  lieciiine  tlie  jits  c!  norma 
loquendi.    Free  to  move  upon  each  other  when  ttie  lan- 
guage \,as  young  and  in  a  fluid  state,  its  elements  have 
now   become   crystallized   into  invariable   forms.  To 
master  tiiis  pre-established  harmony  without  the  aid  of 
rules  is  the  fruit  of  practice  and  the  labor  of  years. 

The  first  step  in  composition  v\  the  yoking  together 
of  double  characters.  The  secoml  is  the  reduplication  of 
these  binary  compounds  and  the  construction  of  parallels 
—an  idea  which  runs  so  completely  through  the  whole  of 


194  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


Chinese  literature  that  the  mind  of  the  student  requires 
to  be  imbued  with  it  at  the  very  outset.  This  is  tlic  \\  ay 
he  begins:  The  teacher  writes  "  Wind  blows,"  the  pupil 
adds  "  Rain  falls ;  "  the  teaclu  r  writes  "  Rivers  are  long," 
the  pupil  adds  "  Seas  are  deep  "  or  "  Mountains  are 
high,"  etc. 

From  the  simple  subject  and  predicate,  which  in  their 

rude  grammar  they  describe  as  "  dead  "  and  "  livinfj  " 
characters,  the  teacher  conducts  his  pupil  to  more  com- 
plex forms,  in  which  qualifying  words  and  phrases  are 
introduced.  He  sives  as  a  model  smne  such  phrase  as 
"  The  Emperor  s  grace  is  vast  as  heaven  and  earth,"  and 
the  lad  matches  it  by  "  The  sovereign "s  favor  is  profound 
as  lake  and  sea."  Tliese  cnuplets  often  contain  two  prop- 
ositions in  each  member,  accompanied  by  all  the  usual 
mcKlifying  terms;  and  so  exact  is  the  symmetry  required 
by  the  rules  of  the  art  that  not  only  must  noun,  verb, 
adjective,  and  particle  respond  to  each  other  with  scrupu- 
lous exactness,  but  the  very  tones  of  the  characters  are 
adjusted  to  each  other  with  the  precision  of  music. 

Begun  with  the  first  strokes  of  his  untaught  pencil, 
the  student,  whatever  his  proficiency,  never  gets  beyond 
the  construction  of  parallels.  When  he  becomes  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Institute  nr  a  minister  of  the  Imperial  Cabinet, 
at  classic  festivals  and  social  entertainments,  the  composi- 
tion of  impromptu  couplets,  formed  on  the  old  model, 
constitutes  a  favorite  pa'^time.  Redocting  a  poetic  image 
from  cver>-  syllable,  or  concealing  the  keen  point  of  a 
cutting  epigram,  they  afford  a  fine  vehicle  for  sallies  of 
wit :  and  poetical  contests  such  as  that  of  Meliboeus  and 
Menalcas  are  in  China  matters  of  daily  occurrence.  If 
a  present  is  to  be  given,  on  the  occasion  of  a  marriage, 
a  birthday,  or  any  other  remarkable  occasion,  nothing 


SCHOOL  AND  FAMILY  TRAINING  295 

is  deemed  so  elegant  or  acceptable  as  a  pair  of  scrolls 
inscnl)e(l  with  a  compliincntary  distich. 

When   the   novice   is   sufti'cicntiv   exercised    in  the 
parallels  "  for  the  idea  of  symmetry  to  have  become  an 
•nstmct,  he  is  permitted  to  advance  to  other  species  of 
compos.tion  which  afford  freer  scope  for  his  faculties. 
J>uch  are  the  shou  t'ieh  in  which  a  single  thought  is  ex- 
panded in  simple  language;  the  /«„.  the  formal  dis- 
cussion of  a  suhjeet  more  or  Ic  s.  exten.le.i.  and  epistles 
addressed  to  imaginary  persons  and  adapted  to  all  con- 
ceivable circumstances.    In  these  last,  the  forms  of  the 
complete  letter-writer  "  are  copied  with  too  much  ser- 
vility;  but  m  the  other  two,  substance  being  ,Ieen.e.!  of 
more  consequence  than  form,  the  new-fledged  thought  is 
permitted  to  essay  its  powers  and  to  expatiate  with  but 
little  restraint. 

In  the  third  stage,  composition  is  the  leading  object 
reading  being  wholly  subsi.iiary.    It  takes,  for  the  most' 
part,  the  artihcia!  form  of  verse,  and  „f  a  kind  of  prose 
called  u^n  chu„s,  which  is.  if  possible,  still  more  arti- 
ficial.   The  reading  required  embraces  mainly  rhetorical 
models  and  sundry  anthologies.    History  is  studied,  but 
only  that  of  China,  and  that  only  in  compends;  not  for 
Its  lessons  of  wis<lom.  but  for  the  sake  of  the  allusions 
with  which  It  enables  a  writer  to  embellish  classic  essays 
The  same  may  be  said  of  other  studies;  knowle.lgc  and 
mental  discipline  are  at  a  discount,  and  style  at  a  pre- 
mium.   The  goal  of  the  long  course,  the  flower  and  fruit 
of  the  whole  system,  is  the  t.v«  chan.^r;  for  this  alone 
can  msure  success  in  the  public  examinations  for  the  ci-il 
scrvK-e,  ,n  winch  stu.lents  begin  to  adventure  soon  after 
enUM-mg  on  the  third  stage  of  their  prcpanUorv  course 
These  exammations  we  reserve  for  subsequent  consid- 


a96  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

eration,  and  in  that  connection  vvc  shall  notice  the  wen 

chant;  more  at  k-nslh.  may,  iKuvcvcr,  remark  in 

passinpr  that  to  propose  siicli  an  end  as  the  permanent 
object'^of  pursuit  must  of  necessity  have  the  effect  of 
rendering  e.Uication  >tiperricial.  In  our  own  universities 
surfaee  is  aimed  at  rather  tlian  depth;  but  wiiat,  we  may 
ask,  besides  an  empty  slitter,  would  remain  if  none  of 
our  students  aspired  to  anytliing  better  than  to  become 
popular  newspaprr-writers?'  ^'et  successful  essayists 
and  penny-a-liners  reipiire  as  a  preparation  for  their 
functions  a  substratum  of  solid  information.  They  have 
to  exert  themselves  to  keeji  abreaM  of  an  aqe  in  which 
preat  facts  and  p'-at  thoughts  vibrate  in>lantaneuusly 
throughout  a  henu sphere.  Rut  the  idea  of  progressive 
knowle<l5re  is  alien  to  the  nature  of  llie  riv;/  clioiii::.  A 
ju>ter  parallel  tor  the  intense  and  fruitless  couccntra- 
tiun  of  energy  on  this  species  of  composition  is  the 
passion  for  Latin  verse  whi.li  sva-^  doininaiu  in  our  lialls 
of  learning  until  dethroned  by  the  rise  of  modem  science. 

V.  Grade  of  schools 

The  division  of  the  undergraduate  course  into  the 
three  stages  which  we  have  dcscriK-d  gives  rise  to  three 
classes  of  schools;  the  primary,  in  whieli  little  is  at- 
tended to  bevond  memoriter  recitation  and  imitative 
chirography ;  the  middle,  in  which  the  canonical  books 
are  expomi.le.l ;  and  the  classical,  in  vliich  composition 
is  the  leading  exercise.  Not  unfreiiuently  all  three  de- 
partments are  embraced  in  one  and  the  same  school ;  and 
still  more  fre(|uently  the  MUgle  deparlnunt  professed 
is  so  neglected  as  to  render  it  utterly  abortive  for  any 
useful  purpose.  This,  as  we  fmve  elsewhere  intimated,  is 
garticularly  the  case  with  what  are  called  public  schools. 


SCHOOL  AND  FAMILY  TRAINING  297 


National  scfinnls  there  an'  none,  with  tlie  exception  of 
those  at  tlie  capital  for  the  e(hication  of  the  Bannermen, 
originally  cstalilislicd  on  a  lilicra!  scale,  hut  now  so 
neglected  that  they  can  scarcely  be  leckoneil  among 
existing  institutions. 

A  ftirtliiT  t-xc('|)ii<,ti  may  he  niaile  in  f;ivnr  of  sch'-ols 
opened  in  various  places  by  provmcial  officers  for  ■  cial 
purposes;  but  it  is  still  true  that  China  has  nothing 
approadiiiig  to  a  system  of  common  schools  designed  to 
dififusv  among  the  masses  the  blessings  of  a  popular  edu- 
cation. Indeed,  education  is  systematically  left  to 
private  enterprise  and  ])ul)lic  charity ;  the  government 
contenting  itself  with  gatherin,;  the  choicest  fruits  and 
encouraging  production  by  suitable  rewards.  A  govern- 
ment that  does  this  cannot  be  accused  of  neglecting  the 
interests  of  education,  though  tlu'  liciu-ticial  influence  of 
such  patronage  seldom  penetrates  lu  the  lower  strata  of 
si^>ciety. 

Even  higher  institutions,  those  that  bear  the  name  of 
colleges,  are,  for  the  most  part,  left  to  shift  for  them- 
selves on  the  same  principle.  Such  colleges  differ  little 
from  schools  of  the  middle  and  higher  class,  except  in 
the  number  of  professors  and  students.  The  professors, 
however  numerous,  teach  nothing  but  the  Chinese  lan- 
guage, and  the  students,  however  long  they  may  remain 
in  the  institution,  study  nothing  but  the  Chinese  lan- 
guage. Colleges  in  the  modern  sense,  as  institutions  in 
which  the  several  sciences  are  taught  by  men  who  are 
specially  expert,  are,  as  yet,  almost  unknown.  lUit  there 
is  reason  to  believe  that  the  governirient  will  soon  per- 
ceive the  necessity  of  supplying  its  people  with  the  means 
of  a  higher,  broader  culture  than  they  can  derive  from 
the  granunar  and  rhetoric  of  their  own  language. 

In  establishing  and  contributing  to  the  support  of 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


schools,  the  gentry  arc  cxcccliiigly  lihcral ;  hut  lliey  are 
not  always  careful  to  see  that  their  schools  are  conducted 
in  an  cfiiciint  luaniuT.  In  l  liiiKi  nntliin<;  tlovirislies 
without  the  stimuhis  of  private  interest.  Accwnhiiiily, 
all  who  can  afford  to  do  so.  endeavour  to  employ  .jrivate 
instructors  for  their  i>\\n  families;  and  where  a  snii,'le 
familv  is  nnahle  to  meet  the  expense,  two  or  three  of 
tlie  same  claji  or  famil\  name  are  accustomed  to  club 
together  for  that  object. 

F.tTorts  for  the  pmmi.tii.n  nf  education  arc  specially 
encouraged  by  eiili^duened  magistrates.  Recently,  over 
three  hundred  new  schools  were  reported  as  opened  in 
one  department  of  the  Province  of  Canton  as  the  result 
of  official  influence,  but  not  at  government  expense. 
The  Emperor,  too,  has  a  way  of  bringing  his  influence  to 
bear  on  this  object  without  drawing;  a  farthing  from 
his  exchequer.  I  shall  menliun  three  instances  by  way  of 
illustration. 

Last  year,  in  Shantung,  a  man  of  literary  standmg 
contributed  four  acres  of  ground  for  the  establishment 
of  a  village  school.  The  governor  recommended  him 
to  the  notice  of  the  Emperor,  an<l  iiis  Majesty  -nferred 
on  him  the  titular  rank  of  professor  in  the  Kuo  lie  Chieii, 
or  Confucian  College. 

Three  or  four  years  ago,  in  the  Province  of  linpei,  a 
retired  offaxr  of  the  grade  of  Taotai,  or  Intendant  of  Cir- 
cuit, contributed  twenty  thousand  taels  for  the  endow- 
ment of  a  college  at  Wu  Chang.  The  Viceroy  Li  Han 
Chang  reporting  to  tlie  throne  this  act  of  munificence, 
the  Chinese  Peabody  was  rewarded  by  the  privdege  of 
wearing  a  red  button  instead  of  a  blue  one.  and  inscribing 
on  his  card  the  thle  of  Provincial  Jud-e 

The  third  instance  is  that  of  a  college  in  Kei  l.ln  l  ii, 
the  capital  of  Kuangsi.    Falling  into  decay  and  ruin 


SCHOOL  AND  FAMILY  TRAINING  299 


during;  the  long  years  of  the  Taiping  rebellion,  the  gentrj', 

on  the  return  of  peace,  raised  cnntrihutidns.  repaired  tlic 
building,  and  started  it  again  in  successful  operation.  The 
governor  solicits  on  behalf  of  these  public-spirited  citi- 
zens so  iie  marks  of  the  Imyx  rial  api)rohation  ;  ami  his 
Majesty  sends  them  a  laudatory  inscription  written  by 
the  elegant  pencils  of  the  Hanlin. 

Hut  private  efTort,  however  stimulated,  is  utterly  inade- 
quate to  the  wants  of  the  public.  In  Western  countries 
the  enormous  exertions  of  nligious  societies,  prompted 
as  they  arc  by  pious  zeal  eiiluinced  hy  sectarian  rivalry, 
have  always  fallen  short  of  the  educahunal  necessities  of 
the  masses.  It  is  well  understood  that  no  system  of 
schools  can  ever  succeed  in  reaching  all  classes  of  the 
peo[)le  unless  it  has  its  roots  in  the  national  revenue. 

In  China,  what  with  the  unavoidable  limitation  of 
private  effort  and  the  deplorable  inefficiency  of  charity- 
schools,  but  a  small  fraction  of  the  youth  have  the  ad- 
vantages of  the  most  elementary  education  brought 
within  their  reach. 

I  do  not  here  speak  of  the  almost  total  absence  of 
schools  for  girls,  for  against  these,  Chinese  are  prin- 
cipled. The  government,  having  no  demand  for  the 
services  of  women  in  official  posts,  makes  no  provision  for 
their  education  .and  popular  opinion  regards  reading  and 
writing  as  dangerous  arts  in  female  hands.  If  a  woman, 
however,  by  chance,  emerging  from  the  shaded  hemi- 
s[)here  to  which  social  prejudices  have  consigned  her 
(si  qua  fata  aspcra  rumpat),  vindicates  for  herself  a  po- 
sition among  historians,  poets,  or  scholars,  she  never  fails 
to  lie  y^reeted  with  even  mori'  than  her  prop.er  share  of 
public  admiration.  Such  instances  induce  indulgent 
fathers  now  and  then  to  cultivate  the  talents  of  a  clever 
daughter,  and  occasionally  neighborhood  schools  for  the 


300 


THE  LORE  OK  CATHAY 


iR'ticfif  (if  pirls  aro  tn  lio  PH't  n  itli;  hut  tin-  Cliincse  people 
liavo  yet  lo  learti  thai  tl'.e  hisi  provisidn  tlicy  could  make 
for  the  primary  education  of  their  sons  would  be  to  edu- 
cate the  mntlurs,  ami  tliat  llic  cilncatioi)  of  tlic  moihers 
cnnltl  not  fail  to  improve  the  iiitelkvtual  character  of 
tlieir  oflfspring.  Rut  even  for  the  more  favored  sex  the 
facilities  for  ol)iainiiii^  an  ediicalinii  are  sadly  dcfici'-nt; 
only  a  small  percentage  of  the  youth  attend  school,  and, 
owing  to  the  absunl  method  which  we  have  described, 
few  of  them  advance  far  enough  to  be  initiated  into  the 
mysteries  of  ideography. 

On  this  subject  a  false  impression  has  j^onc  abroad. 
We  hear  it  asserted  that  "educatimi  is  imivirsal  in 
China:  even  cooHfs  are  tatijjht  to  read  atiil  v.rite."  In  one 
sense  this  is  true,  hut  not  as  we  understand  the  terms 
"  reading  and  writing."  In  the  alphabetical  vernaculars 
of  tile  West  the  ability  to  read  and  write  implies  the 
ability  to  express  one's  thoughts  by  the  pen,  and  to  grasp 
the  thoughts  of  others  when  so  expressed.  In  Chinese, 
and  especially  in  the  classical  or  book  language,  it  im- 
plies nothing  uf  the  st)rt.  A  shopkeeper  may  be  able  to 
write  the  numbers  and  keep  accounts  without  being  able 
to  write  anything  tlsr  :  and  a  lail  who  has  attended  school 
for  several  years  will  pronounce  the  characters  of  an 
ordinary  book  with  faultless  precision,  yet  not  com- 
prehend the  meaning  of  a  single  sentence.  Of  tho^e 
who  can  read  understandingly  (and  nothing  e'sc  ought 
to  be  called  reading),  the  ])roportion  is  greater  in  towns 
than  in  rural  districts.  Hut  striking  an  average,  it  does 
not.  according  to  my  ohscTvation,  exceeil  one  in  tweiUy 
for  the  ni;  e  sex  and  one  in  ten  thousand  for  the  female 
— rather  a  humiliating  exhibit  for  a  country  which  has 
maintained  for  centuries  such  a  magnificent  institution 
as  the  Hanlin  .Vcademy. 


SCHOOL  AND  FAMILY  I  RAINING  jof 


With  all  due  alli)u;iticf  for  tlu'  want  i>f  statistical  ac- 
curacy wliun-  iiu  statistics  arc  obtainable,  compare  this 
with  tlic  educational  statistics  of  the  United  States  as 
ii'wvn  ill  tile  census  of  1S70.  Taking  the  country  as  a 
whole,  the  ratio  of  illiteracy  among  persons  over  ten 
years  of  age  is  1  in  6;  taking  the  Northern  States  alone, 
the  ratio  is  57  to  1,000,  or  about  1  in  i8.* 

VI.  Government  agency 

To  some  it  may  be  a  matter  of  surprise  that  popular 

e<lucati(>n  is  left  to  fake  care  of  itself  in  a  cmuitry  where 
letters  are  hekl  sacreil  ami  their  inventor  enrolled  among 
the  gods;  to  others  it  may  appear  e(|ually  strange  that 
mental  cultivation  is  so  extensivelv  ditTused,  considering 
tlie  cumbrous  vehicle  employed  for  the  transmission  of 
thought  and  the  enormous  difficulty  of  getting  com- 
mand of  it.  Both  phenomena  find  their  solution  in  the 
fact  that  the  government  does  not  value  education  for  its 
own  sake,  but  regards  it  as  means  to  an  end.  The  great 
end  is  the  rejiose  of  the  State;  the  instruments  for  se- 
curing it  are  able  otVicers.  and  education  is  the  means  for 
j)repariiig  them  for  the  discharge  of  their  duties.  This 
done,  an  adequate  supply  of  disciplined  agents  once  se- 
cured, the  education  of  the  people  ceases  to  be  an  object. 
The  repose  of  the  State,  one  of  the  ancient  philosophers 
tells  us.  might  l>e  assured  hy  the  opposite  process :  "  Fill 
till'  peojile's  bellies  and  em])ty  their  minds;  cause  that 
they  neither  knt)w  nor  desire  anything,  and  you  have  the 
secret  of  a  tranquil  government."  Such  is  the  advice  of 
Laotze,  which  I  am  inclined  to  take  as  an  utterance  of 
Socratic  irony  rather  than  Machiavelian  malice.  So  far 
from  subscribing  to  this  sentiment  in  its  literal  import, 
the  Chinese  government  holds  its  officers  responsible  for 

*  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1871. 


302 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


the  instnii  tirm  of  its  snfijs  i  ts  in  all  matters  of  duty ;  and 
in  Chinese  .society  the  idea  of  instruction  as  the  one  thing 
needful  has  so  wrought  itself  into  the  forms  of  speech 
as  tu  bc'cnnu-  :i  wearisoiiu  fimt  'i'lie  rid  card  tliat  ii. 
vites  you  to  an  entertaiiiiiuiit  solicits  "instruction." 
When  a  friend  meets  you  he  apolojrizcs  for  having  so 
I'  lii;  .iliscnted  himself  fri m  your  "  instructions;  "  and  in 
familiar  conversation,  sim]>li  statements  and  opinions 
are  often  received  as  "  jjreeioiis  instruction  "  by  those 
who  do  not  li,  any  means  accept  lluiii.  It  is  more  to  the 
point  to  aiM  that  one  of  tlie  classical  hooks  denounces 
it  as  the  greatest  of  parental  faults  to  bring  up  a  child 
without  instruction.  This  relates  to  the  moral  rather 
than  to  the  intell<  rtual  -ide  of  education.  The  Chinese 
government  does,  nevertheless,  encourage  purely  intel- 
lectual cuhure;  and  it  docs  so  in  a  most  decided  and 
efTectual  manner  -  vi/..  hy  testint;  attainments  and  re- 
warding e.xcrtion.  In  the  magnificence  of  the  scale  on 
which  it  <l<x*s  this,  it  is  unapproached  by  any  other 
natiiiu  of  the  earth. 

Lord  Mahon.  in  his  History  of  England,  speaking  of 
the  patronage  extended  to  learning  in.  the  period  j)reced- 
ing  Walpole,  observes  that  "  though  the  .sovereign  was 
never  an  Aui:ustu>-.  the  minister  was  always  a  Maecenas. 
Newton  became  .Master  of  the  Mint;  Locke  was  Com- 
missioner of  Appeals ;  Steele  was  Commissioner  of 
Stamps:  Stcimcy,  Prior,  and  Gray  were  employed  in  lu- 
crative and  imi)oriant  embassies ;  Addison  was  Secretary 
of  State;  Tickell,  Secretary  in  Ireland.  Several  rich 
sinecures  were  bestowed  on  CiMigreve  and  Rowc,  on 
Hughes  and  Ambrose  Philips."  And  he  goes  on  to  show 
how  the  illiberality  of  succeeding  reigns  was  atoned  for 
by  popular  favor,  the  difTusion  of  knowledge  enabling  the 
people  to  become  the  patron  of  genius  and  learning. 


SCHOO*    AND  FAMILY  TRAINING  303 


'I'lio  Chinese  practise  none  of  tliesc  tlirce  mctlioils. 
The  Emperor,  less  arbitrary  than  monarchs  of  the  West, 

dues  III  it  fi't'l  at  lihcrf  y  to  reward  an  aiitlior  by  official 
appointments,  and  inini-^ii  r  has  no  power  to  do  80. 
The  inefficiency  of  poiml.ir  patronage  is  less  to  their 
cretlit ;  authors  rea]>  much  honor  and  little  cniolnmcnt 
from  their  works.  It  is  sunutliini,'  to  Iv  able  to  add  that 
all  three  arc  mcrped  in  a  rti^nlated  State  patronape,  ac- 
cordiiif,'  to  which  the  reward  of  liter.,  ,  y  merit  is  a  law  of 
the  I".ini)ire  and  a  rit,dit  of  the  people.  This  brings  us  to 
speak  of  the  examinaii(jn  system.* 

Though  not  unknown  to  tlie  Occidental  public,  these 
cNaminations  are  not  proprrly  understood,  for  the  opinion 
has  been  gaining  gnnmd  tlt'it  their  value  has  been  over- 
rated, and  that  they  are  to  be  held  responsible  for  all  the 
shortcoinin.L;s  of  (■hine>e  intelUcliial  (idturt  .  'i'hc  truth 
is  just  the  reverse.  These  shortcomings  (1  have  not  at- 
tempted to  disguise  them)  are  referable  to  other  causes, 
while  for  nearly  a  thousand  years  this  system  of  literary 
competition  has  operated  as  a  stimulating  and  conserva- 
tive agency,  to  which  are  due  not  only  the  merits  of  the 
national  education,  such  as  it  is,  but  its  very  existence. 

Coming  down  from  the  past,  with  the  accretions  of 
many  centuries,  it  has  ex])anded  into  a  vast  branch  of  the 
administration,  and  its  machinery  has  become  as  com- 
plex as  its  proportions  are  enormous.  Its  ramifications 
extend  to  every  district  of  the  Empire ;  and  it  commands 
the  services  of  district  magistrates,  prefects,  and  other 
civil  functionaries  u])  to  f^overnors  and  viceroys.  These 
are  all  auxiliary-  to  the  regular  officers  of  the  literary 
corporation. 

In  each  district  there  are  two  resident  examiners  with 

•The  subject  is  here  touched  on  incidentally.  For  a  fuller 
treatment  of  it  sec  the  next  two  chapters. 


304  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


the  title  of  professor,  wliubc  duty  it  is  tt)  keep  a  rej;ihier 
of  all  ccinjH-ting  students,  and  fo  exercise  them  from 

time  to  time  in  order  tn  stimulate  tl  eir  elT'.rts  aii'l  kecj) 
them  in  preparation  for  tlie  higher  e.\aiiiinaiiuns  in  whieh 
degrees  arc  conferred,  in  each  province  there  is  one 
eliancelliir  vr  MiperiiitciideiU  '  i  insiriiitinn,  uhu  holds 
ohice  fur  three  years,  and  is  required  to  visit  every  district 
and  hold  the  cu>toinary  exann'nations  within  that  time, 
conferring  the  first  (Kj;ree  on  a  certain  percentage  of  the 
candidates.  There  are,  moreover,  two  special  examiners 
for  each  province,  generally  meml)ers  uf  the  iiaiihn, 
deputed  from  the  capital  to  euiidiKt  the  great  triennial 
cxaminaticiis  and  Cdnler  ilie  semnd  degree. 

The  rej^ular  decrees  are  three: 

I'irst,  Ifsiu-ts'iii,  or  "  Flower  of  talent." 

Second.  Cliii-ji'n.  or  "  Promnted  scholar." 

Third,  Chin  .Jiili,  i^r  "  h  it  fur  otViee." 

To  which  may  be  added  as  a  fourth  degree  the  Han-Hn, 
or  memlier  of  tlie  "  ["i  iest  Ptiicils."  The  first  of  tlle•^e 
is  sometimes  compared  to  tlie  degree  of  15. A.,  conferred  hy 
colleges  nntl  universities ;  the  second  to  M.A. ;  the  third  to 
IXC.l..  "I-  1. 1.1).  Tlu  last  is  accurately  de^ciilitd  hv 
membership  in  the  Imperial  .\cadeniy ;  always  hearing 
in  mind  how  much  a  Chinese  Academy  must  differ  from 
a  similar  institution  in  the  West.  But  so  laini  the 
analogy  which  the  I'tlur  degrees  hear  to  the  liti  !.,;  .  de- 
grees of  Western  lands  that  the  interchangi  of  terms  is 
sure  to  lead  *o  misconecptiops.  Chinese  degrees  rep- 
resent talint,  not  know  1>, dge ;  they  are  conferre<l  hy  Vac 
State,  without  the  iincrvention  of  school  or  college;  they 
carry  with  them  the  privileges  of  oflRcial  rank ;  and  they 
are  bestowed  on  no  more  than  a  very  small  pt  rc -iita^e 
of  those  who  engage  in  competition.  With  us.  on  the  con- 
trary, they  give  no  ofti  iial  standing;  they  attest,  where 


I 


SCHOOI.  AND  FAMILY  I  RAINING  305 

tlu>  iman  an\fliiiip,  acquircnu-nf^  ratlur  than  ability; 
an«l  tlie  numk'r  of  tiiose  who  arc  ■  piuckcil  '  is,  usually 
-inall  in  Dniparistm  with  those  who  are  allowed  to 
•  pas.v  i!„t  after  all.  the  tu  w  llol-cd  bachdt.r  of  an 
<  '    -I'tiial  r  his  head  cranmini  with  tlic  outlines 

of  IIP  V.  rsal  knowledge,  answers  quite  as  nearly  to  the 
sprigli  hsiu-ts'ai. 


'•  Whos.  Muil  prmid  science  never  taught  to  stray 
Far  as  the  sf>lar  walk  or  Milky  Way," 

as  i.u-    \V  .     rn  i^imral  to  the  chief  of  an  undisciplined 

horde  oi  -   rrill.  :  -...I.liers. 

Till'  ;  ,,  [«.rt  of  I'an  Szc  Lien.  Chanoellor  of 

the  I'rovini  oi  Siiantung,  thrmph  somewhat  va^ue.  will 
l;!  I  lis  aii  >\vA  t  tin-  >ffioiaI  duties  of  the  cliief  examiner 
mil  the  >|,irit  111  uhieh  lie  professes  to  ili>cliarge  them: 

"Your  Majesty's  servant."  says  the  chanrcllnr.  "has 
Ruarded  the  seal  of  otl'ue  with  tlie  utmost  vit^ilaiiee.  In 
every  instance  where  fraiuls  wen-  detected,  he  Iia-  liaiided 
the  offender  over  to  tbe  proper  authorities  for  punish- 
ment.   In  rc-e\aminiiiL;  the  -^lu  re-~-ful,  whenever  their 
handwritinj;  disagreed  with  that  of  tluir  i)revio,is  piT- 
formanccs.  he  has  at  once  expelled  them  from  the  hall, 
without  cr  iiuiiiv:  a  particle  of  indulgence.    He  every- 
where e\hnrte,l  the  students  to  aim  at  tlie  cultivation  of  a 
high  moral  character.    In  judging  of  the  merit  of  com- 
l>  )sitions,  lie  followed  reason  and  the  estahlished  rules. 
At  the  close  of  each  examination  he  addressed  the  si  ■ 
dents  face  to  tace.  exhorting  ihem  not  to  walk  in  ways  of 
vanity,  nor  to  concern  thcm.selves  with  things  foreign 
to  their  vocation,  hut  to  ;i])hold  the  credit  of  scholarship 
and  to  sick  to  maintain  or  retrieve  the  literary  rep.nfation 
of  their  several  districts.    Besides  these  occupations, 


I, 


3o6  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


your  servant,  in  passing;  from  place  to  place,  observed 
that  the  snow  has  ever)  vvliere  exercised  a  reviving  influ- 
ence; tlic  ydiint:;  wlieat  is  bepinninj^  to  shoot  up;  the 
people  are  perfcclly  cjuict  and  well  disposed ;  the  price  of 
provisions  is  moderate ;  and  those  who  suffered  from  the 
recent  Hoods  arc  ,L,aa(Iual1y  ri'turniii)^  to  their  forsaken 
honus.  For  literary  culture,  Hsin  Chou  stands  pre-emi- 
nent, while  Tsao  Chou  is  equally  so  in  miUtary  matters." 

This  is  the  wliolc  report,  with  the  exception  of  certain 
stereotyped  phrases,  employed  to  open  and  conclude  such 
documents,  and  a  barren  catalogue  of  places  and  dates. 
It  contains  no  statistical  facts,  no  statement  of  the  number 
of  candidates,  nor  the  proportion  passed ;  indeed,  no  in- 
formation of  any  kind,  except  that  conveyed  in  a  chance 
allusion  in  the  closing  sentence. 

I'Voni  (his  we  Karii  tliat  the  chancellor  is  held  respon- 
sible for  examinations  in  the  military  art ;  and  it  inij,'Iit  be 
inferred  that  he  reviews  the  troops  and  gauges  the  attain- 
ments of  the  cadets  in  military  history,  enj^ineerinfj, 
tactics,  etc. ;  but  nothing  of  the  kind :  he  sees  them  draw 
the  bow,  hurl  the  discus,  and  go  through  various  manoeu- 
vres with  siuar  and  shield,  which  have  no  longer  a  place 
in  civilized  warfare. 

The  first  dccfree  only  is  conferred  by  the  provincial 
dhancellor.  and  the  happy  recipients,  fifteen  or  twenty  in 
each  department,  or  one  per  cent,  of  the  candidates,  are 
decorated  with  the  insignia  of  rank  and  admitted  to  the 
ground-floor  of  the  nine-storied  papoda.  The  trial  for  the 
seoiml  (ky:rce  is  held  in  the  capital  of  each  province,  by 
sjiecial  coiiiiiiissioners,  once  in  three  years.  It  consists 
of  three  .ses,sions  of  three  days  each,  making  nine  days 
of  almost  continuous  exertion— a  strain  to  the  mental  and 
physical  powers  to  which  the  infirm  and  aged  frequently 
succumb. 


SCHOOL  AND  FAMILY  TRAINING  307 


In  atldition  to  composition  in  prose  and  verse,  tlic  can- 
didate is  required  to  show  his  acquaintance  with  history 
(the  liistory  of  China),  philosophy,  critici.sm,  and  various 
brandies  of  arcli.eoli)g\ .  A^'ain  cme  per  cein.  are  decor- 
ated ;  but  it  is  not  until  the  more  fortunate  among  them 
succeed  in  passing  the  metropolitan  triennial  that  the 
meed  of  civil  office  is  certainly  bestowed.  Tliev  are  not, 
however,  assigned  to  their  respective  offices  until  they 
have  gone  through  two  special  examinations  within  the 
palace  and  in  the  presence  of  the  limperur.  On  this 
occasion  the  highest  on  the  list  is  honored  with  the  title 
of  chuang-yuan,  or  "laureate" — a  distinction  so  great 
that  our  Western  curriculum  has  nothing  to  compare 
with  it.  In  the  late  reign  it  was  not  thought  unl)efitting 
for  the  daughter  of  a  chuang-yiian  to  be  consort  of  tiie 
Son  of  Heaven. 

A  score  of  the  best  admitted  to  memltership  in  the 
Academy,  two  or  three  score  are  attached  to  it  as  pupils 
or  probationers,  and  the  rest  drafted  off  to  official  posts 
in  the  capital  or  in  the  provinces,  the  humblest  of  which 
is  supposed  to  compensate  the  occupant  for  a  life  of 
penury  and  toil. 

In  conclusion,  the  civil-service  competitive  system  ap- 
pears destined  to  play  a  conspicuous  part  in  carrying  for- 
ward an  intellectual  movement  the  incipient  stages  of 
which  are  already  visible,  it  has  cherished  the  national 
education,  such  as  it  is;  and  if  it  has  compelled  the  mind 
of  China  for  ages  past  to  grind  in  the  mill  of  blind  imita- 
tion, that  is  not  the  fault  of  the  system,  hut  its  abuse. 

When  the  growing  intluencc  of  Western  science  ani- 
mates it  with  a  new  spirit,  as  it  must  ere  long,  we  shall  see 
a  million  or  more  of  patient  students  applying  them- 
selves {<■>  scientific  studies  with  all  the  ardor  that  now 
characterizes  their  literary  competition. 


XVII 


CIVIL  SERVICE  EXAMINATIONS 
E  reform  proposed  in  the  organization  of  our 


civil  service,  which  Cdiiteiiiplates  the  iiitrudiic- 


tion  of  a  system  uf  competitive  examinations, 
makes  an  inquiry  into  the  experience  of  other  nations 
timely.  F.n,s,rlan,l,  France,  and  rnis>ia  have  each  made 
use  of  competitive  examinations  in  some  branches 
of  their  public  service.  In  all  these  States  the  result 
has  been  uniform— a  conviction  tliat  such  a  system, 
so  far  as  it  can  be  empkned.  affords  the  best 
method  of  ascertaining  the  qualificatitms  of  camlidates 
for  K'Jvernmeiit  employment.  Wut  in  then'  countries  the 
experiment  is  of  recent  date  and  ,.f  limited  appliciuioii. 
We  must  look  farther  East  if  we  would  see  the  system 
workinfj  on  a  scaK>  sufilciently  large  aml  through  a  period 
sufficiently  exten<ied  to  afford  us  a  full  exhibition  of  its 
advantages  aiul  defects. 

It  is  in  (  hina  that  its  merits  have  been  tested  in  the 
most  satisfactory  manner:  and  if  in  this  instance  we 
should  profit  by  their  experience,  it  would  not  be  the 
first  lesson  we  have  learned  from  the  Chinese,  nor  the 
last  they  are  capable  of  giviiitr  us.  It  is  to  them  that  we 
are  indebtt'd,  among  other  obligations,  for  the  mariner's 
compass,  for  gunfiowder.  and  probably  also  for  a  remote 
Miggesti.m  uf  the  art  of  jmnling.'  These  arts  have 
Iieen  of  the  tirst  importance  in  their  bearing  on  tlie  ad- 
vancement of  society— one  of  them  having  effected  a 


CIVIL  SERVICE  EXAMINATIONS  309 

complete  revolution  in  tlie  cliaracter  of  modern  warfare, 
while  the  otiiers  iiavc  imparted  a  migiity  impulse  to  in- 
tellectual culture  and  commercial  enterprise.  Nor  is  it 
too  much  to  affirm  that,  if  we  should  adopt  the  Chinese 
method  of  testing  tiie  ability  of  candidates,  and  of  select- 
ing the  best  men  for  the  service  of  the  State,  the  change 
it  woul<l  cfTict  in  our  civil  administration  would  he  not 
less  beneficial  than  those  that  have  been  l)rou</ht  alxnit 
by  the  discoveries  in  the  arts  *o  which  1  have  referred. 

The  bare  suggestion  may  perhaps  provoke  a  smile;  but 
are  not  the  long  duration  of  the  Chinese  government,  and 
the  vast  tJopulation  to  which  it  has  served  to  secure  a  fair 
measure  of  prosperity,  phenomena  that  challenge  ad- 
miration? Why  should  it  he  considered  derogatory  to 
our  civilization  to  coi)y  an  institution  which  is  confessedly 
the  masterpiece  in  that  skilful  mechanism — ^the  balance- 
wheel  that  regulates  the  working  of  that  wcmderful 
machinery  ? 

In  the  arts  which  we  have  borrowed  from  the  Chinese 
we  have  not  been  servile  imitators.  In  every  case  we 
have  made  improvements  that  ast.niisli  the  original  in- 
ventors. We  employ  movable  type,  apply  steam  and 
electricity  to  j)rinting,  use  the  needle  as  a  guide  over 
seas  which  no  jutik  would  have  ventured  to  traverse,  and 
construct  artillery  such  as  the  inventors  of  gunpowder 
never  dreamed  of.  Would  it  be  otherwise  with  a  trans- 
I)lanted  competitive  system?  Should  we  not  he  able  to 
purge  it  of  certain  defects  which  adhere  to  it  in  China,  and 
so  render  it  productive  of  better  results  than  it  yields  in 
its  native  climate?  I  think,  therefore,  that  I  shall  serve 
a  better  purpose  than  the  simple  gratitication  of  curiosity 
if  I  devote  a  bi  i  space  to  the  consideration  of  the  most 
admirable  institution  of  the  Chinese  Empire, 

Its  primary  object  was  to  provide  men  of  ability  for 


3IO  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


the  service  of  tlie  State,  and,  whatever  else  it  may  have 
failed  to  accomplish,  it  is  imjxjssible  to  deny  that  it  has 
fulfilled  its  specific  end  in  a  remarkable  degree.  The 
mandarins  of  China  are  almost  without  exception  the 
choicest  specimens  of  the  educated  classes.    Alike  in  the 
capital  and  in  the  provinces,  it  is  the  mandarins  that 
take  the  lead  in  every  kind  of  literary  enterprise.  It 
is  to  them  the  Emperor  looks  to  instruct  as  well  as  to 
govern  his  people;  and  it  is  to  them  that  the  publishers 
look  for  additions  to  the  literature  of  the  nation— nine- 
tenths  of  the  new  books  being  written  by  mandarins. 
In  their  social  meetings,  their  conversa'-on  abounds  in 
classical  allusions;  and  inst-ad  of  after-dinner  speeches, 
they  are  accustomed  to  amuse  themselves  with  the  com- 
position of  impromptu  verses,  which  they  throw  off 
with  incredible  facility.   It  is  their  duty  to  encourage  the 
efforts  of  students,  to  preMile  at  the  public  examinations, 
and  to  visit  the  public  schools — to  promote,  in  short,  by 
example  as  well  as  precept,  the  interests  of  education. 
Scarcely  anytliing  is  deemed  a  deeper  disgrace  than  for  a 
magistrate  to  be  found  incompetent  for  this  department 
of  his  official  duties.     .So  identified,  indeed,  a.e  the 
mandarins  with  all  that  constitutes  the  intellectual  life  of 
the  Chinese  juopk.  tliat  f(jreigners  have  come  to  regard 
them  as  a  lavoretl  caste,  like  "le  Brahmins  of  India,  or  as 
a  distinct  order  enjoynig  a  monopoly  of  learning,  like  the 
priesthood  in  Fgypt. 

Nothing  could  be  further  from  the  truth.  Those  stately 
officials,  for  whom  the  people  make  way  with  such  awe- 
struck deference,  as  tiiey  pass  along  the  street  with  em- 
broidered robes  and  imposing  retinue,  are  not  possessors 
of  hereditary  rank,  neither  do  they  owe  their  elevation 
to  ilie  favnr  of  tlieir  sovereign,  nor  >et  to  the  suffrages 
of  their  fellow -subjects.    They  are  self-elected,  and  th« 


CIVIL  SERVICE  EXAMINATIONS  311 

people  regard  them  with  the  deeper  respect,  because  they 
know  tliat  iIkv  have  carm-.I  tluir  prsition  hy  intellectual 
effort.  What  can  be  more  truly  democratic  than  (in  the 
words  of  Anson  Burlingamr)  to  of?er  to  all  "the  inspir- 
ation of  fair  opjjortunitN  ■■  In  tlii>  (genuine  democracy 
China  stands  unapiiroaclied  ainoiifj  the  nations  of  the 
earth;  for,  whatever  imperfections  may  attacli  to  her 
social  organization  or  to  lur  politieal  system,  it  must 
be  acknowledged  that  slie  Ikis  devised  tlie  most  efTeetnal 
method  for  encourai^inj;  dtort  and  rewarding  merit. 
Here  at  least  is  one  country  where  wealth  is  not  allowed 
to  raise  its  possessor  to  the  seat  of  power;  wliere  the  will 
even  of  an  emperor  cannot  hcstow  its  offices  on  unedu- 
cated favorites ;  and  where  the  caprice  of  the  multitude 
is  not  permitted  to  confer  the  honors  of  the  State  on 
incompetent  demagogues. 

The  institution  that  accomplishes  these  results  is  not 
an  innovation  on  the  traditional  policy  of  the  Empire.  It 
runs  back  in  its  essential  features  to  the  earliest  period  of 
recorded  history.  The  adherence  of  the  Chinese  to  it 
through  so  many  ajjes  well  illustrates  the  conservative 
element  in  the  national  character ;  while  the  iinijortant 
changes  it  has  undergone  prove  that  this  people  is  not 
by  any  means  so  fettered  by  tradition  as  to  be  incapable  of 
Welcoming  improvements. 

The  germ  from  which  it  sprang  was  a  maxim  of  the 
ancient  sages,  expressed  in  four  syllables — Chii  hsien  jen 
"<'",C — "  I'-miiloy  the  able  and  promote  the  worthv ;  "  and 
examinations  were  resorted  to  as  affording  the  best 
test  of  ability  and  worth.  Of  the  Great  Shun,  that  model 
emperor  ot  remote  antiquity,  who  lived  about  B.C.  221x1, 
it  is  recorded  that  he  examined  his  officers  every  third 
year,  and  after  these  examinations  either  gave  them  pro- 
motion or  dismissed  them  from  the  service.    On  what 


312 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


subjects  lie  i.van.iiK'd  tliem  at  a  time  wIkii  letters  were 
but  newly  invented,  and  wiien  b(X)k.s  had  as  yet  no  exist- 
i  iKe.  w  e  are  not  ti)ld ;  neither  are  we  informed  whether 
111'  M;!)jeeti'(i  eaiiili<iates  to  any  test  ])reviotis  to  ajijioint 
menl ;  yet  tlie  mere  fact  u£  sucii  a  periodical  examination 
established  a  precedent  which  has  continued  to  be  ob- 
served to  the  present  day.  I'.very  tliird  year  the  f:^overn- 
ment  holds  a  yreat  examination  for  the  trial  of  candi- 
dates, and  every  fifth  year  makes  a  formal  inquisition 
into  the  rec{int  of  its  civil  fuiutionaries.  The  latter  is  a 
poor  substitute  for  the  (jrdeal  of  public  criticism  to  which 
officials  are  exposed  in  a  country  eiijoyinir  a  free  press; 
but  the  former,  as  we  siia'l  have  (Kcasion  to  show,  is 
thorough  of  its  kind,  and  severely  impartial. 

More  than  a  thousand  years  after  the  above  date,  at 
the  commencement  of  the  Chou  dynasty,  B.  c.  it  15,  the 
govenimeiil  was  accustomed  to  examine  candidates  as 
well  as  ot'ticers ;  and  this  time  we  are  not  left  in  dcnibt  as 
to  the  nature  of  the  examination.  The  Chinese  had  be- 
come a  citiiivated  pecpie.  and  we  are  informed  that  all 
candidates  for  office  were  retpiired  to  give  proof  of 
their  acquaintance  with  the  five  arts— music,  archery, 
horsemanshi]),  writiiiLT,  and  arithmetic:  and  to  be  thor- 
ou,j4hly  versed  in  the  rites  and  ceremonies  of  public  and 
social  life — an  accomplishment  that  ranked  as  a  sixth 
art.  These  "six  arts,"  expressed  in  the  concise  formula 
li,  yiieh,  she,  yii,  shu,  su,  comprehended  the  sum  total  of 
a  liberal  education  at  the  period,  and  remind  us  of  the 
trii  imn  and  qnadrivhim  of  the  m*;diiEval  schools. 

I  'lider  t'.e  dynasty  of  I  Ian,  after  the  lni)se  nf  another 
thousand  years,  we  find  the  range  of  subjects  f  ir  the  civil- 
service  examinations  largely  extended.  The  Confucian 
Ethics  had  !)ecome  curreiU.  and  ;i  moral  standard  u;is  re- 
garded in  the  selection  of  the  competitors — District  mag- 


CIVIL  SERVICE  EXAMINATIONS  313 

istratcs  wore  miiiircd  to  sond  up  to  tlif  cai>it.-il  siuh 
men  as  !iad  acquired  a  reputation  for  luiao  and  lien— 
"filial  piety"  and  "  integrity  "—the  Chinese  rightly  con- 
sidering that  the  faithful  porforinauce  of  dotuestic  and 
social  duties  is  the  best  guarantee  for  fulehty  in  i)ul)lic 
life.  These  hsiao-lien,  "  filial  sons  and  honest  subjects," 
whose  moral  character  had  been  sufficiently  attested, 
were  now  subjected  to  trial  in  respect  to  their  intellectual 
qualifications.  The  trial  was  twofold — first,  as  to  tlieir 
skill  in  the  "  six  arts  "  already  mentioned ;  secondly,  as 
to  their  familiarity  witli  one  or  more  of  the  folluwincf 
subjects:  the  civil  law,  military  affairs,  agriculture,  the 
administration  of  the  revenue,  and  the  geography  of  the 
Emj)ire  with  special  reference  to  the  state  of  the  water 
communications.  This  was  an  immcnise  advance  on  the 
meagre  requirements  of  the  more  ancient  dynasties. 

Passing  over  another  thousand  years,  we  come  to  the 
era  of  the  T  angs  and  the  Sungs,  when  we  find  the  stand- 
ard of  literary  attainment  greatly  elevated,  *he  graduates 
arranged  in  three  classes,  and  officials  in  nine — a  classi- 
fication which  is  still  retained. 

Arriving  at  the  close  of  the  fourth  millennium,  under 
the  sway  of  the  Mings  and  of  the  Ch'ings  of  the  present 
day,  we  find  the  simple  trials  instituted  by  Shun  ex- 
panded into  a  colossal  system,  which  may  well  claim  to 
be  the  growth  of  four  thousand  years.  It  strll  exhibits 
the  features  that  were  prominent  in  its  earlier  staf^es — 
the  "  six  arts,"  the  "  five  studies,"  and  the  "  three  de- 
grees "  remaining  as  records  of  its  progressive  develop- 
ment. Rut  the  "  six  arts  "  arc  m-^t  what  they  once  were; 
and  the  admirers  of  antiquity  complain  that  examinations 
are  sadly  superficial  as  compared  with  those  of  the  olden 
time,  when  competitors  were  required  to  ride  a  race,  to 
shoot  at  a  target,  and  to  sing  songs  of  their  own  com- 


3'4 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


position  to  the  accompaniment  of  tluir  own  guitars. 
In  these  degenerate  days  examiners  arc  satisfied  with 
odes  in  j)raise  of  music,  and  essays  on  the  archery  and 
horsemanship  of  the  ancients. 

Scholarship  is  a  very  dilferent  tiling  now  from  what 
it  was  in  those  ruder  ages,  when  hooks  were  few,  and 
the  liarp,  tlie  bow,  ami  the  saddle  divided  the  student's 
time  with  the  oral  instructions  of  some  famous  master. 
Each  century  has  added  to  the  weight  of  liis  burden; 
and  to  the  -  heir  of  all  the  a«es  "  each  passing  generation 
has  bequeathed  a  legacy  of  toil.    Doomed  to  live  among 
the  deposits  of  a  buried  world,  and  coiucnding  with  mil- 
lions of  competitors,  he  can  hardly  hope  for  success 
without  devoting  himself  to  a  life  of  unremitting  study. 
True,  h»»  is  not  called  upon  to  extend  his  researches  be- 
yond the  limits  of  his  own  national  literature;  but  that  is 
all  but  infinite.    It  costs  him  at  the  outset  years  of  labor 
to  get  possession  of  the  key  that  unlocks  it;  for  the 
learned  language  is  total!,,  distinct  from  his  vernacular 
dialect,  and  justly  regarded  as  the  most  difficult  of  the 
languages  of  man.    Then  he  must  commit  to  memory 
the  whole  circle  of  the  recognized  classics,  and  make 
himself  familiar  with  the  best  writers  of  every  age  of  a 
country  which  is  no  less  prolific  in  books  than  in  men. 
No  doubt  his  course  of  study  is  too  purely  literary  and  too 
exclusively  Chinese,  hut  it  is  not  superficial.    In  a  popu- 
lar "  Student's  Guide "  we  lately  met  with  a  course 
of  reading  diawn  up  for  thirty  years!    We  proposed 
puttmg  it  into  the  hands  of  a  young  American  residing 
in  China,  who  had  asked  advice  as  to  what  he  should 
read.   "  Send  it,"  he  replied,  "  but  don't  tell  my  mother." 

But  it  is  time  to  take  a  closer  view  of  these  exami- 
nations as  they  are  actually  conducted.   The  candidates 


CIVIL  SKRVICE  KXAMINATIONS  315 


fur  ofTici'-  tluisc  wIk)  arc  ackruiwU-d^jcd  as  such  in  con- 
sequence of  sustaining  ilic  initial  trial — are  divided  into 
thf  three  frradcs  of  hsiu-ts'ai.  chU-jen,  and  chin-shih — 
"  rtinvers  ui  '.alont,"  "  proiiiulctl  scliolars."  and  those  who 
are  "  ready  for  office."  '1  lie  trials  for  the  first  are  held 
in  the  chief  city  of  each  district  or  hsien,  a  territorial 
division  which  corresiiDiids  to  our  county  or  to  an  Eng- 
lish shire.  They  are  conducted  hy  a  chancellor,  whose 
jurisdiction  extends  over  an  entire  province  containing,  it 
may  he.  sixty  or  seventy  such  districts,  e.icli  of  which  he  is 
ri(iuircd  to  visit  once  a  year,  and  each  of  which  is  pro- 
vided with  a  resident  siih-chancellor,  whose  duty  it  is  to 
examine  the  scholars  in  the  interval,  and  to  have  them 
in  readiness  on  the  cliatui  l!i  ir's  arrival. 

About  two  thousand  competitors  enter  the  lists,  ranging 
in  age  from  the  precocious  youth  just  entering  his  teens 
up  to  the  venerable  j^randsire  of  seventy  winters.  Shut 
up  for  a  night  and  a  day,  each  in  his  narrow  cell,  they 
prixluce  each  a  poem  and  one  or  two  essays  on  themes 
assigned  liy  the  clianiellt ir,  and  'Inn  return  to  their 
homes  to  await  the  bulletin  announcing  their  place  in 
the  scale  of  merit.  The  chancellor,  assisted  by  his  clerks, 
occupies  several  days  in  sifting  the  heap  of  manuscrijits, 
from  which  he  picks  out  some  twenty  or  more  that  are 
distinguished  by  beauty  of  penmanship  and  grace  of 
diction.  The  authors  of  these  are  honored  with  the 
deforce  of  "  Flower  of  Talent,"  and  are  entitled  to  wear 
the  decorations  of  the  lowest  grade  in  the  corporation  of 
mandarins. 

The  smi  '.  ssful  student  wins  no  piir-e  of  ^rold  and  olj- 
tains  no  ofiice,  but  he  has  gained  a  prize  which  he  deems 
a  sufficient  compensation  for  years  of  patient  toil.  He  is 
the  best  of  a  hundred  scholars,  exempted  from  liability 


3i6  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


to  coqxjral  punishment,  and  raised  :  '  vf  the  vulijar 
herd.  Th<.  cial  c  M.kration  to  wli  hv  v  tvm  cnti- 
tlfd  makes  it  a  ^rirnd  »lay  for  him  anil  ui>  fan  iIk 

Once  in  tf  tec  years  these  "  Flowers  of  TaU  ?  ■  '  thi 
picked  men        '.lio  .liMri.  ts.  repair  to  tlic  i     v  m.  i.i 
capita!      tn^.t,    <u      npitition  fur  the 
that  c»t  (  /j«  JiH,  I       r  'i.  nioteil      '5  l.r 
of  comp<.*titors  amounis  to  ten  tli  usjin. 
and  <)''    u'st'  only  or-  in  cv-  v  hu.  •\ 
to  tli<    .  viud  (Ifgrii.     ria  !    d  is  «  !i> 
rxamii!«-rs  sent  down  trom  I'    m^;  and 
lakes  .    '.vii'i'!     inj;»  tlian  I'.ic  \  •  < 'lit  \ 
three  -essii  ns  of  nearly  three  'lays  eav. 
instead  of  the  sinple  day  for  rhe  fi-'-t  let;; 
positint.^  ill  priKi  ntid  w  ise  are  ri  li- 
issign  .1  witii  a  special  view  to     stinj,  ti 
reading  and  depth  of  scholar^ip  i      ie  ca?  '*« 
man-hip  is  lef'  oi'.r  of  th    acc(       — e;;      j.  i 
marked  vith  a    iphcr,   icing     pied  b)  an  tHfii 
tliai  the  i-xamintTS  may  have      clew  to    s  author  a 
temptation  to  render  a  biassei'   ud  i. 


cond  .  jjree 
The  number 

I'  I  , 
he  a'         1 1 

b>    -]■  I 

xamina^  n 

:  u  rr  til  !i 

llptCl 

{ 

me- 


\lent 


'  no 


The  victor  still  vi  v-s 

nor  t 

nt; 

l>ut  the  honor  he  acli   \  ^  1 

an  iy  1  ur. 

ch 

was  won  by  th<  vie   rs  in  f 

e  C'iympic  gas 

^ain 

lie  is  rmc  ■  a 

Inmdr 

f  w '   m  was  n 

n-  n  , 

and  as  a  1. 

't       f  .          s.  ,» 

Vict  he 

ii  an 

acknowledi'i 

'■■\'- 

ten      M'san  ; 

mending 

sclii  'ars.  1! 

1. 

with  t'  Hdi 

UttO!  of 

a  hiyiu  r  gra 

I' 

•  )ft 

CS  bet,  re 

the  gate  of  ! 

I'-l  j     "•-  a 

tablet  over 

his  door  ti 

that  - 

aliode 

I   1  litcmr. 

'  lolar  " 

not  yet  a 

'.andatiii  m 

ro-^  r 

term. 

The  distinct!. 

already  atta.ned     .iy  ss^^ 

his  de- 

CIVIL  SERVICE  EXAMINATIONS  317 


sire  for  higher  hcmor» — honors  which  bring  M  last  the 
soli'l  ricnm{)cn8e  of  an  income — travelling  at  the  expet^ 

if  f'  c  state. 

In  the  spring  of  the  followini;»  y»'ir  he  procet-ds  \t> 
Peking  to  scfk  t!ic  next  liij^lur  <Ivg;rct',  atlaitu  H  ir-  i.t 
v  hich  will  prove  a  passport  to  office.  The  conl  st  is  still 
\  '1  his  peers;  that  is,  with  other  "  Protnotcd  Sch(4ars," 
who,  like  hiinsdf,  have  Cftne  up  ff  •  i  all  ihe  province-, 
of  the  tiipire.  iltit  tlie  ii  anoes  =ir'  ■  us  rinu  more  in 
his  fa\  r.  as  the  numiM  r  prizes  is  nuw  tripled;  and  if 
the  g      ire  propitious  his  fortune  is  made. 

Til  !  ordinarily  not  very  «lev  nit,  he  now  show  s  him- 
self peculiarly  solicitous  to  ecur.  the  favor  i.f  the  divit si- 
ties.  He  burns  incense  an<l  gi^cs  alms.  If  lie  sees  a 
fisli  fl(ni  iilcrin^  oti  the  hook,  he  p  ivs  its  price  a;  '  rt^tores 
it  ti>  us  native  element,  lie  picks  struggluig  ants  out  of 
the  vulet  made  by  a  recent  shower,  distributes  moral 
rrac.  'If  better  still,  rescm  chat  Iiits  of  printed 
fmprr  utn  being  trodden  in  ttie  ni:  ot  the  streets.*  If 
1  le  a|>pears  among  the  favored  few,  he  not  only 

\  nM-lf  a  phue  in  the  front  ranks  of  the  k'urcd. 

In;  nts  his  foot   -ecurely  on  the  rounds  of  the 

ofii  er  by  whicii,  ivithout  tin  prestij,n-  of  birth  or 

the  of  friends,  it  is  possible  to  rise  to  a  seat  in 

tlu'  (  "on  ■  il  of  ^tafe  or  a  place  in  the  Imperial 

Cabinit.  All  this  advancemt  rit  presents  itself  in  the  dis- 
tant prospect,  while  the  office  upon  which  he  immediately 
enters  is  one  of  respeC ability,  and  it  may  he  of  |:n,tit. 
It  is  generally  that  of  mayor  or  sub-mayor  of  a  district 
city,  or  sab-chancellor  in  the  district  examinations — the 
vacant  po^  being  distributed  by  lot,  and  therefore  impar- 

*The  beari'!'.;  '        ■nrV'.  .  f  t!i'^-  kind  nn  tbr  result  nf  thv 

competition  is  c  piously  ii^M^trattd  l)y  collections  of  anin  '  •' 
which  are  widely  circulated. 


31 8  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


tially,  among  those  who  have  proved  themselves  to  be 

"  read)  for  office." 

Before  the  drawing  of  lots,  however,  for  the  post  of  a 
magistrate  among  tlie  people,  our  ambitious  student  has 
u  chance  of  winning  the  more  distinguished  honor  of  a 
place  in  the  Imperial  Academy.  With  this  view,  tlie  two 
or  llircc  hundred  survivors  of  so  many  contests  appear 
in  the  palace,  where  themes  are  assigned  them  I.y  the 
Eiiipemr  himself,  and  the  highest  honor  is  paid  to  the 
pursuit  of  letters  by  the  exercises  being  presided  over 
by  his  Majesty  in  [)erson.  Penmanship  reappears  as  an 
element  in  determining  the  result,  and  a  score  or  more 
of  those  whose  style  is  the  most  finished,  whose  scholar- 
ship the  rii)est,  and  whose  handwriting  the  most  elegant, 
are  drafted  into  the  college  of  llanlin,  the  "  forest  of 
pencils,"  a  kind  of  Imperial  Institute  the  ni.  "hers  of 
which  are  recognized  as  standing  at  the  head  of  the 
literary  profession.  These  are  constituted  poets  and 
historians  to  the  Celestial  Court,  or  deputed  to  act  as 
chancellors  and  examiners  in  the  several  provinces.* 

But  the  diminishing  series  in  this  ascending  scale  has 
not  vet  reached  its  final  term.  Tlie  long  succession  of 
contests  culminates  in  the  designation  by  the  Emperor 
of  some  individual  whom  he  regards  as  the  Ckuang  Yuan, 
or  Model  Scholar  of  the  Empire— the  bright  cmsum- 
mate  llower  of  the  season.  This  is  not  a  common  annual 
like  the  senior  wranglersliip  of  Cambridge,  nor  the  pro- 
duct of  a  private  garden  like  the  valedictory  orator  of  our 
American  colleges.  It  blooms  but  once  in  three  years, 
and  the  whole  Empire  yields  but  a  single  blossom — a 
blossom  that  is  ctdled  by  the  hand  of  Majesty  and 
esteemed  among  the  brightest  ornaments  of  his  dominion. 

*  For  details  concerning  the  Hanlin  Yuan,  see  the  next 
chapter. 


CIVIL  SERVICE  EXAMINATION 


3'9 


Talk  of  academic  lioiiors  such  as  are  bestowed  l)y  West- 
ern nations  in  compari.scm  with  those  which  this  Uriental 
Etnpire  heaps  on  her  scholar  laureate!  Provinces  con- 
tend for  the  sliining  prize,  and  tlie  H)wn  that  gives  the 
victor  birth  becomes  noted  forever.  Swift  heralds  luar 
the  tidings  of  his  triumph,  and  the  hearts  of  the  peuide 
le.ip  at  their  approach.  We  have  seen  them  enter  a 
Iiiiniblc  cottage,  and  amidst  the  flaunting  of  banners  and 
the  blare  of  trumpets  announce  to  its  startled  inmates 
that  one  of  their  relations  had  been  crowned  by  the  lun- 
pcror  as  the  laureate  of  the  year.  So  high  was  the  esti- 
mation in  whicii  the  people  held  the  success  of  their 
fellow-townsman  that  his  wife  was  requested  to  visit 
the  six  gates  of  the  city,  and  to  scatter  before  each  a 
handful  of  rice,  that  the  whole  population  might  share 
in  the  good-fortune  of  her  household.  A  popular  tale, 
represents  a  goddess  as  descending  from  heaven,  tliat  she 
might  give  birtii  to  the  scholar  laureate  of  the  Empire. 
So  exalted  is  this  -dignity  that  in  1872  the  daughter  of  a 
Cliiitiii^i;  Yuan  was  deemed  sufficiently  noble  to  be  chosen 
for  Empress  Consort. 

All  this  has.  we  confess,  an  air  of  Oriental  display  and 
exaggeration.  It  suggests  rather  the  dust  and  sweat  of 
the  great  natiniial  games  of  antiiiuity  than  the  mental 
toil  and  intellectual  triumphs  of  the  modern  world.  I'.ut 
it  is  obvious  that  a  competition  which  excites  so  pro- 
foundlv  the  interest  of  a  whole  nation  must  be  productive 
of  very  decided  results.  That  it  leads  to  the  selection  of 
the  best  talent  for  the  service  of  the  public  we  have 
already  seen ;  but  beyond  this — its  i)rimary  oliject — it 
exercises  a  profound  influence  upon  the  education  of  the 
people  and  the  stability  of  the  government.  It  is  all  in 
fact,  t'lat  ("liitia  has  to  show  in  the  way  of  an  e>!ucati'>na1 
system.   She  has  few  colleges  and  no  universities  in  our 


320 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


W  tstirn  sense.*  and  no  national  system  of  common- 
sohouls ;  )  ct  it  may  be  confidently  asserted  that  China 
gives  to  learning  a  more  effective  patronage  than  she 
cuuld  have  dune  if  each  of  her  emperors  lia<l  been  an 
Augustus  and  every  premier  a  Maecenas.  She  says  to  all 
her  sons.  "  Prosecute  your  studies  by  such  means  as  you 
in.iy  be  able  to  coiiiniand,  whether  in  public  or  in  private ; 
and,  when  you  are  prepared,  present  yourselves  in  the 
examination-hall.  The  government  will  judge  of  your 
priificiency  and  reward  your  attainments." 

Nothing  can  exceed  the  ardor  which  this  standing 
offer  infuses  into  the  minds  of  all  who  have  the  re- 
motest prospect  of  sliaring  in  tlie  prizes.  They  study 
not  nurely  wliile  they  have  teachers  to  incite  them  to 
diligence,  but  continue  their  studies  with  unabated  zeal 
long  after  they  have  left  the  schools ;  they  study  in  soli- 
tu(!e  am".  ])overty ;  they  strdy  amidst  the  cares  of  a 
family  and  the  turmoil  of  business ;  and  the  shining 
goal  is  kept  steadily  in  view  until  the  eye  grows  dim 
with  a!L;e.  Some  of  the  asjiirants  ir'pnse  <in  themselves 
the  task  of  w  riling  a  fresh  es.say  every  day ;  and  they  do 
not  hesitate  to  enter  the  lists  as  often  as  the  public  ex- 
aminations recur,  resolveti.  if  tliey  fail,  to  continue  t  ,,  ing, 
believing  that  perseverance  has  power  to  command  suc- 
cess, and  encouraged  by  the  legend  of  the  man  who, 
needing  a  sew  ing  needle,  made  one  by  grinding  a  crow- 
bar on  a  piece  of  granite. 

We  have  met  an  old  mandarin  who  related  with  evi- 
dent pride  bow.  on  gaining  the  second  degree,  he  bad  re- 
moved witli  bis  whole  family  to  Peking,  from  the  dis- 
tant jiroviiice  of  Yunnan,  to  compete  for  the  third;  and 

♦  Tliis  u.T.  wriucn  prior  to  the  opfninR  of  the  Now  Univer- 
vitv  :;t  T'rkitiK;  .iinl  tlu'  Nortli  I't'-ver  .  at  I  unt^in — both 
closed  buildcnly,  but  not  hopelessly,  I,"'  '        >xer  uprising. 


CIVIL  SERVICE  EXAMINATIONS  321 


how  at  each  triennial  contest  he  liad  failetl,  until,  after 
more  than  twenty  years  uf  patient  waiting,  at  tlic  seventh 
trial,  and  at  the  mature  age  of  threescore  he  bore  off 
the  coveted  prize.  l!r  had  utirn  his  honors  for  seven 
years,  and  was  then  mayor  of  the  city  of  Tientsin.  In  a 
list  now  on  our  table  of  ninety-nine  successful  com- 
petitors for  the  secDiid  degree,  sixteen  are  over  forty 
years  of  age,  one  sixty-two,  and  one  eighty-three.  The 
average  age  of  the  whole  number  is  above  thirty  ;  and  for 
the  third  degree  the  average  is  of  course  proportionally 
higher. 

So  poweriul  are  the  motives  addressed  to  them  that 
the  w  hole  brnly  of  scholars  who  once  enter  the  examina- 
tinii-liali  are  u.voteii  to  study  as  a  life-long  occupation. 
V\'e  thus  have  a  class  of  men,  numbering  in  tlie  aggregate 
some  two  or  three  millions,  who  keep  their  faculties 
brif^Iit  by  ciin--taiit  ixercise.  and  wlmni  it  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  parallel  in  any  Western  country  for  readiness 
with  the  pen  and  retentiveness  of  memory.  If  these  men 
are  not  highly  educated,  it  is  the  fault  not  of  the  com- 
petitive system,  whicii  proves  its  power  to  stimulate  them 
to  .such  prodigious  exertions,  but  of  the  false  standard  of 
intellectual  merit  established  in  China.  In  that  country 
letters  arc  everything  and  science  nothing.  Men  <KCuny 
themselves  w  ith  words  rather  than  with  things ;  and  the 
]K)wers  of  acquisition  are  more  cultivated  than  those  of 
invention. 

The  type  of  C  hinese  education  is  not  that  of  our 
modern  schools;  but  when  compared  with  the  old  cur- 
riculum of  lanc:uages  and  pliilosophy  it  ajipears  b\  no 
means  contemptible.  A  single  pai)er.  intended  for  the  last 
tlay  of  the  examination  for  the  second  degree,  may  serve 
as  .1  s|K'ciinen,  It  covers  five  snbiects— criticism,  historv, 
agriculture,  military  affairs,  and  finance.    There  are 


322  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

about  twenty  questions  on  each  subject,  and  while  they 

certainly  do  n..t  .Kal  with  it  in  a  scientific  manner,  it  is 
sonutliing  in  their  favor  to  say  that  tliey  are  such  as 
cannot  be  answered  without  an  extensive  course  of  read- 
ing in  Chinese  literature,  (^ne  question  under  each  of 
the  five  heads  is  all  that  our  space  will  allow  us  to 

introduce.  . 

1.  "  How  do  the  rival  schools  of  Wang  and  Ching 
differ  in  respect  to  the  exposition  of  the  meaning ^and 
the  criticism  of  the  text  of  the  '  Book  of  Changes  ?  " 

2.  "  Tlie  great  historian  Sze  Ma  Ch'ien  prides  himself 
on  haviiiK  gatliered  up  much  material  that  was  neglected 
by  other  writers.  What  are  the  sources  from  which  he 
derived  his  information  ?  " 

3.  ■•  From  tin  earliest  times  great  attention  has  been 
given  to  the  improvement  of  agriculture.  Will  you  in- 
dicate the  arrangements  adopted  for  that  purpose  by  the 
several  d\ nasties  ?  " 

4  ■•  The  art  of  war  arose  under  Huang  Ti,  forty- 
four  hundred  years  ago.  Different  dynasties  have  since 
that  time  adopted  different  regulations  in  regard  to  the 
use  of  militia  or  stan.ling  armies,  the  mode  of  rais- 
ing supplies  fur  the  army,  etc.    Can  you  state  these 

brieflv?"  ,.  , 

5  '  "  ( ,ive  an  account  .-f  the  circulating  medmm  under 
different  dvnasties,  and  state  how  the  currency  of  the 
Sung  dynasty  corresponded  with  our  use  of  paper  money 
at  the  present  day." 

In  another  paper,  issued  on  a  similar  occasion,  as- 
tronomy takes  the  place  of  agriculture;  but  the  questions 
are  confined  to  such  allusions  to  tho  subject  as  are  to 
be  met  with  in  the  circle  of  their  classical  literature,  and 
aff,.r,I  but  little  scope  for  the  display  of  scientific  attain- 
ments.   Still,  the  fact  that  a  place  is  found  for  this 


CIVIL  SERVICE  EXAMINATIONS  323 


class  of  stil>ji'cts  is  full  of  linpe.  It  iiidicalis  tlial  the 
(l(K>r,  if  not  fully  open,  is  at  least  sufticicntly  ajar  to 
admit  the  introduction  of  our  Western  sciences  with 
all  their  progeny  of  arts,  a  band  powerful  enough  to 
lift  tile  Chinese  f)ut  of  the  mists  of  liiir  medi.evMl 
scholasticism,  and  to  bring  them  into  the  full  liglit  ui 
modem  knowledge.  If  the  examiners  were  scientific 
men,  and  if  scientific  subjects  were  made  sufficiciitly 
prominent  in  these  higher  examinations,  millions  of 
aspiring  students  would  soon  become  as  earnest  in  the 
pursuit  of  modern  science  as  they  now  are  in  tlie  study 
of  their  ancient  classics.*  Thus  reformed  and  renovated 
by  the  injection  of  fresh  blood  into  the  old  arteries, 
this  noble  institution  would  be  worthy  of  its  dignity  as 
a  great  national  university — ^a  university,  not  like  those  of 
Oxford  and  Cambridge,  which  train  their  own  gradu- 
ates, but — to  compare  great  things  with  small — like  the 
University  of  London,  promoting  the  cause  of  learning 
by  examining  candidates  and  conferring  degrees.  The 
University  of  London  admits  to  its  initial  examination 
annually  about  fourteen  hundred  candidates,  and  passes 
one  half.    The  government  examinations  of  China  admit 

*  As  a  sample  of  the  practical  bearing  which  it  is  possible  to 
give  to  these  examination  exercises,  we  take  a  few  questions 
from  another  paper: 

"  Fire-arms  Iwgan  with  the  use  of  rockets  in  the  Chou  dynasty 
( B.  c.  I  I2a-2S6) ;  in  what  book  do  we  first  meet  with  the  word 
for  cannon?  What  is  the  difference  in  the  two  classes  of  en- 
gines to  which  it  is  .Tppliod  ( aiifilii'd  Im  i'io  citnp-ilt)  ?  Is 
the  (li-fi  iice  of  K'.ii  Feng  Fii  its  first  rci-  rikd  use  •  Kublai 
Klinn.  it  is  said,  iibtaini'd  canimii  of  a  new  Ivunl;  from  wliom 
did  he  obtain  them?  The  Sungs  had  several  \.;rict'es  of  small 
cannon,  what  were  their  advantages?  When  the  Mings,  in  the 
reign  of  Yung  Lo,  invaded  Cochin-Chin.i,  they  obtained  a  kind 
of  cannon  called  the  '  weapons  of  the  gods ; '  can  you  give  an 
account  of  their  origin?" 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


about  two  million  candidates  every  year,  and  pass  only 

two  or  tlirt-e  per  cint. 

The  political  bearings  of  tliis  competitive  system  are 
too  important  to  be  passed  over,  and  yet  too  numerous 
to  U  treated  in  detail.  Its  incidental  advantages  may  be 
comprehended  under  three  heads. 

1.  It  serves  the  State  as  a  safety-valve,  providing  a 
career  for  those  ambitious  spirits  wlio  inijjlu  otlierwise 
foment  disturbances  or  excite  revolutions.  W'liile  in 
denuKratic  countries  tlie  ani!)itious  flatter  the  i>eoi)le,  and 
in  monarchies  fawn  on  the  great,  in  C  hina,  instead  of 
resorting  to  dishonorable  arts  or  to  polilieal  agitation, 
they  betake  themselves  to  i|niet  study,  'l  liey  know  that 
their  mental  calibre  will  be  fairly  gauged,  and  that  if  they 
are  born  to  rule,  the  competitive  ex.iminatinns  will  open 
to  them  a  career.  The  competitive  system  has  not,  indeed, 
proved  s;ifficient  to  employ  all  the  forces  that  tend  to 
produce  intistine  cnnmiotion  ;  but  it  is  easy  to  perceive 
that  without  it  the  shocks  must  have  been  mo!o  frequent 
and  serious. 

2.  It  operates  as  a  counterix-.ise  to  the  jinwir  cf  an 
absolute  monarch.  Without  it  the  great  offices  would  be 
filled  by  hereditary  nobles,  and  the  minor  oflfices  be 
farmed  out  by  thousands  to  imperial  favorites*  With  it 
a  man  of  talent  may  raise  himself  from  'Ak-  luiinblest  rank.s 
to  the  dignity  of  viceroy  or  premier.  Chiiiii^i^  hsiaH}^  pin 
•wu  chung — '*  The  general  and  the  prime-minister  are  not 
born  in  office" — is  a  line  that  every  schoolboy  is  taught 
to  repeat.  Rising  from  the  people,  the  mandarins  under- 
stand the  feelings  and  wants  of  the  people,  though  it 
must  be  confessed  that  they  are  usually  avr-ricious  and 
oppressive  in  proiKTtion  to  the  length  of  time  it  has 

♦  The  Maiii-hub.  in  urdiT  to  m.nint.iin  their  jiower  have  re- 
served to  themselves  an  undue  proportion  of  official  posts. 


CIVIL  SERVlCt  EXAMINATIONS  325 


taken  them  to  reach  their  elevai  jn.  Still,  they  have 
the  support  and  sympathy  of  the  people  to  a  greater 
extent  than  they  could  have  if  they  were  creatures  of 
arbitrary  povr.  The  system,  therefore,  introduces  a 
popular  (  .  into  the  government  that  acts  as  a 
check  on  rogativc  of  the  Kniperor  as  to  the  ap- 

pointment of  oiiicers,  and  serves  as  a  kind  of  constitution 
to  his  subjects,  prcscrihing  the  conditions  nii  which  they 
shall  obtain  a  share  in  the  administration  of  the  power  of 
the  State. 

3.  It  gives  the  government  a  hold  on  the  educated 
gentry,  and  bin<ls  them  to  the  support  of  existing  insti- 
tutions. It  renders  the  educated  classes  eminently  con- 
servative, because  they  k-now  that  in  the  event  of  - 
revolution  civil  office  would  be  bestowed,  not  as  the 
reward  of  learning,  but  for  political  or  military  services. 
The  literati,  the  most  influential  portion  of  tlie  popula- 
tion, are  for  this  reason  also  the  most  loyal.  It  is  their 
support  that  has  upheld  the  reigning  house,  though  of  a 
foreign  race,  through  these  long  years  of  civil  commo- 
tion, while  to  the  "  rebels  "  it  has  been  a  ground  of  re- 
proach and  a  source  of  weakness  that  I 'icy  have  had  but 
few  literary  men  in  their  ranks. 

In  districts  where  the  people  have  distinguished  them- 
selves by  zeal  in  the  Imperial  cause,  the  only  recom- 
pense they  crave  is  a  slight  addition  to  the  numbers  on 
the  competitive  prize  list.  Such  additions  the  govern- 
ment has  made  very  frequently  of  late  years,  in  coni,ider- 
ation  of  money  supplies.  It  has  also,  to  relieve  ?ts  ex- 
hausted excheque-,  put  up  for  sale  the  decorations  if  ih" 
literary  orders,  and  issued  patents  admitting  contrihiii  ors 
to  the  higher  examinations  without  passing  through  the 
Inucr  grades.  But  though  tlie  government  thus  debases 
tlie  coin,  it  guards  itself  jealously  against  the  issue  of  a 


3a6  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


spurious  v:iirrciicv.  Soim-  years  ago  Vv't  Clung,  first 
president  of  the  Examining  Uoard  at  i'eking.  was  put  to 
(katli  for  having  fraudulently  conferred  two  or  three  de- 
j;riis.  Tlie  fraud  was  liiiiitr.l  in  extent,  but  the  damage 
it  llinattnctl  was  incakulable.  It  tended  to  sltakc  the 
conrulcnce  of  tlic  piDpK-  in  the  administration  of  that 
branch  of  the  govcriimtiit  wliicli  cdiistitiilcd  their  only 
avenue  to  honors  ami  office.  I'.vcii  tiu-  l^mperor  cannot 
tamper  with  it  without  peril,  lie  may  lower  its  demands, 
in  accordance  with  the  wishes  of  a  majority,  but  be 
could  not  set  it  aside  without  producini,'  a  revolution,  for 
it  is  the  ballot  box  of  the  people,  the  grand  charter  of  their 
rights. 

Such  is  the  Chinese  competitive  system,  and  such  are 
some  of  its  advantages  and  defects.  May  it  not  be 
feasible  to  graft  something  of  a  similar  character  on 
our  ov/n  republican  institutions?  More  coni^euial  tn  the 
si)irit  of  our  free  government,  it  might  be  expected  to 
yield  better  fruits  in  this  country  than  in  China.  In 
British  India  it  works  admirably.  In  Creat  Tlritain,  too, 
the  diplomatic  and  consular  services  have  been  placed  on 
a  competitive  basis;  and  something  of  the  kind  must 
be  done  for  our  own  foreign  service  if  we  wish  our  influ- 
ence abroad  to  be  at  all  commensurate  with  our  great- 
ness and  prosperity  at  home.  Wiien  will  cur  government 
learn  that  a  good  consul  is  worth  more  than  a  man-of- 
war,  and  that  an  able  minister  i?  of  more  value  than  a 
whole  fleet  of  iron-clads?  To  secure  good  consuls  and 
able  ministers  we  must  choose  them  from  a  body  of  men 
who  have  been  piclscd  a'ld  trained. 

In  eflPeclinjj;  these  refonns.  the  bill  of  Mr.  Jencke, 
.  f  Rhode  Island.*  might  serve  as  an  entering  wedge. 

■  This  was  read  before  the  American  Oriental  Society  in  1868, 
and  published  in  the  North  American  Review  in  July,  1870. 


CIVIL  SERVICE  EXAMINAl  IONS  317 


It  would  secure  t'n.  ackiiD-vU'ili^'imiit  nf  tlir  |)iinciplc — 
certainly  not  alarmingly  rtvulmiuiiary  — that  places  should 
go  by  merit.   Rut  it  does  not  go  far  enough.   "  It  does 

ni)|,"  he  says,  "  toiiili  ])lacvs  whicli  arc  tn  !>i'  tilled  uitli 
till-  a<lvicc  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  it  w-juIiI  nut  in  the 
least  interfere  with  the  scramble  for  office  which  is 
K"iii.L;  "II  ;il  till'  I  (tiler  unl  of  tlie  Avetme,  ur  which  fills 
willi  anxious  crowds  the  corridors  of  the  other  win^  of 
the  Capitol.  This  measure,  it  should  he  reineniliered, 
deals  nitlv  with  the  iiifrrior  uflTicers,  w  lm^i-  appi 'intiiu  iit  is 
maiie  by  the  President  alone,  or  by  the  heads  of 
departiiunts." 

lint  what  liati^ji  r  is  there  of  infringing  on  the  rights  of 
tlif  Sriiat.  ?  Is  tliere  aiiytliiii;,'  that  wouM  aid  the  Senate 
so  mucii  in  giving  their  "  advice  and  consent  "  as  the 
knowledge  that  the  applicants  for  coniinnation  had 
priivcd  their  ci impitenee  lu  f  ire  .t  Ilnard  of  Kxaniiners- 
And  would  not  the  knowledge  of  the  same  fact  lighten 
the  burdens  of  the  President,  an«l  relieve  him  of  much  of 
the  iliOieiilty  which  he  now  t  vperieiuis  in  tlie  seleetinn  of 
(pialitied  men.  Such  an  arrangement  would  not  lake 
away  the  power  of  executive  appointment,  but  regulate  its 
CNercise.  Nor  would  it,  if  apiilied  to  elective  offices,  in- 
terfere with  the  people's  freedom  of  choice  further  than 
to  insure  that  the  candidates  should  be  men  of  suitable 
»pialificati(3ns.  It  may  not  be  easy  to  prescribe  rules  for 
that  popidar  sovereignty  which  follows  only  its  own 
sweet  will,  but  it  is  humiliating  to  reflect  that  our  "  ni?:i- 

Stnce  that  date  the  Civil  Service  Reform  fias  taken  so  strong  a 
hold  on  the  public  mind  tli.'it  no  politic.n1  party  dares  to  disavow 
it.  If  is  npplifd  .t;  yet  iin  n  very  limited  scrik-.  I'lit  its  scniio  li:is 
tiet-ii  gre       extended  durinR  the  present  year  (  and  tliere 

is  rcas'i!,  to  anticipate  that  competitive  ex.m'.iiiations  may 
eventually  lieconie  :is  import. e  i  a  factor  in  our  political  system 
as  they  have  been  in  that  of  China. 


3a8 


THK  LORE  OK  CAI  HAY 


(lartns  "  arc  far  froir.  being  the  moM  intellectual  cfaus 

of  I'u'  community  * 

♦  The  following  example  of  our  Amerkin  roctljods  is  ntcnlly 
trur — excrpting  the  nanirs  of  the  coinpetitort : 
Two  men  nitt  at  Terra  Haute,  in  Indiana  (my  native  State) 

to  discuss  ihi  (iiu  siions  of  thf  day  brfore  a  large  assembly,  and 
III  ,isk  ihiir  fillow  litiicns  f.  .i  si:il  in  tin-  Slac  (.cRislaUin- 
Tiinipkiirs,  who  .spnkc  first  ■■  s  well  known  i"  my  (larents,  a. 
a  young  man  of  boumlli  ss  aiiilui! v.i  and  no  i-duealum — not  cvi-n 
tl»at  of  a  common  school.  Jacobs,  a  graduate  of  Vale  College, 
did  not  fail  in  his  reply  to  expose  the  ignorance  of  bis  rival. 
The  latter,  in  bis  closing  specrh.  confessed  that  he  had  never 
"  ruhbi^d  his  back  aRainst  a  collcgi-  wall."  "I  am  a  self-mn'!'' 
mm,  anil  I  k''"')'  l''i.iiil>lin  w.is      sflf-inailc  man.  ^-i  a 

many  of  yon,  my  fdlnw  iil!/cns.  Are  wi  for  .'i.it  riMson  to  1.. 
sni\i\il  at  l)y  a  college  prig?  Let  him  bring  oiii  liis  luniks  anil 
I  will  read  with  hiui  page  fur  |mgc  of  Latin  and  Greek,  and 
you  shall  be  our  judges."  Jacobs  declining  the  contest  as  out 
of  place — coram  nun  juJice — the  populact  raised  a  "  hurrah  for 
the  .self-made  man"  and  sent  him  to  the  LegisUiure.  Now 
whith  is  lilt  ni.  rr  civilized  mode  of  making  "  maadariiu."  this, 
or  ilwt  of  the  Chines? 


XVIU 


THE  IMPERIAL  ACAIttMY 

EAR  the  foot  of  a  bridge  that  spans  the  Imperial 


(  anal  a  few  rods  tu  the  north  of  the  British 


^  I.i^Mtioii,  tlic  visitor  tu  IVkiiij^  may  liavc  noticed 
the  enti  inci  to  a  small  yamcn.  Hi  re  ar>'  tlic  headquarters 
of  the  Hanlin  Academy,  one  of  the  pivots  of  the  Empire, 
and  the  very  ciMUn-  df  its  lid  rarv  activity. 

On  entering  the  fnclosure,  nothing  meets  the  eye  of 
one  who  is  unable  to  read  the  inscriptions  that  would 
auakiii  tile  faintest  susijicion  of  tlu'  imi»irtaiKt'  of  the 
place.  A  succession  of  open  courts  with  broken  pave- 
ments, and  covered  with  rub})ish;  five  low,  shed-like 
stnu  ttiris.  oni'  story  in  liiiglit,  that  have  the  appearance 
of  an  empty  barn ;  tliese  flanked  by  double  series  of 
humbler  buildings,  quite  inferior  to  the  stables  of  a  well- 
conducted  farnisiead — some  of  the  latter  in  ruins ;  and 
dust  and  «'ef  ly  everywhere — Such  is  the  aspect  presented 
by  tlip  eh'.:  f  cit  ->f  an  institution  which  is  justly  regarded 
as  amoi  .  ii.  ;;'ories  oi  the  I  jiipirc.  A  glance,  ho. >  ever, 
at  the  inscri[)ti' ms  on  the  walls — some  of  tlieiu  in  Imperial 
aul(  graph — ivanis  the  visitor  that  he  is  not  treailing  on 
cr  Miiion  prn i  nd. 

Ihis  ir.,p'-ossi' is  confirmed  when,  arriving  at  the 
last  of  the  transverse  buildings,  it  is  found  to  be  locked, 
and  all  efforts  to  obtain  an  entrance  fruitless.  Its  yellow 
tiling'  is  suL^gestive;  and  the  .  iiiit'ir.  proof  ntrainst  per- 
suasion, announces,  with  a  mysterious  air,  that  this  is  a 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


pavilion  sacred  to  tlie  use  of  tlie  Knipcmr.  There,  con- 
cealed from  vnlpar  eyes,  stands  a  throne,  on  which  his 
Majoty  sits  ill  state  whenever  he  deigns  to  honor  the 
Academy  witii  liis  presence. 

Sundry  iiiscrii)tinns  in  pilded  characters  record  the 
dates  and  circumstances  of  these  Imperial  visits,  wliicli 
are  by  no  means  so  frequent  as  to  be  commonplace  occur- 
rence:. .\  native  ptiide-book  to  the  "lions"  of  the 
cai)ita',  ilev^itiuL^  ciulitrtii  paires  to  the  Hanlin  Yuan, 
dwells  witli  speeial  eiiipliasis  <>u  tb-  iiiiposini:;  ceremonial 
connected  witl;  a  visit  (jI  C  b'ieii  l.uii;;  ibe  MaRnitkent  in 
the  first  year  of  the  cycle  which  occurred  after  the  com- 
nutieenu'iit  nf  bis  reii^n. 

I'Vnm  tins  aiitlmrity  we  Uam  that  the  rooms  of  the 
.■Xcademy.  havinp  fallen  into  a  state  of  decay  were  re- 
built bv  order  of  tbe  I'.iiipernr,  and  rededvated.  with 
solemn  rites,  to  the  service  of  letteis.  Ill-  Majesty  ap- 
peared in  person  to  do  honor  to  the  occasion.  an<l  con- 
ferred on  tbe  iW'  pri-idellts  tbe  faVMT  nf  ;m  eiiteriain- 
nient  in  tbe  Imperial  pavilinn.  ()f  the  members  of  the 
Academy  not  fewer  than  one  bundrofl  and  sixty-five  were 
present.  "  .Xmiilli;  tlie  pr<if  le-t  reeulleet intis  of  tbe  llall 
of  Cieiiis"  (tbe  llaidin).  says  tbe  chronicler,  "for  a 
tbou-and  years  there  was  no  day  like  that." 

The  EmiK-ror  further  signalized  the  iccasion  by  two 

C( 'll^p'Olt' Ml--  ffifts. 

The  fust  was  a  presi'iit  to  tbe  librarv  *  of  a  complete 
set  of  the  wonderful  encyclopt-edia  ealU  d  tbe  T'li  Sim  Chi 
Cli'fiii:.  I'rititcl  I  till'  rei^n  i.f  K"aii;,'  ilsi  un  iimvable 
Clipper  types,  and  comprebendinij:  a  choice  selection  of 
the  most  valuable  works,  it  extencls  to  six  thous.ind 

♦This  library,  and  the  Imildings  containing  It  wi  re  set  on 
fir.  l.v  Inii  >riil  suhlitrs  in  June  looo,  in  the  hopi-  tif  liUrniiig 
tin-  British  Legation. 


THE  IMPERIAL  ACADEMY 


volumes,  and  constitutes  of  itself  a  library  of  no 
conteinptible  magnitude. 

The  other  gift,  less  bulky,  but  more  precious,  was  an 
original  ode  from  tlie  Imperial  pencil.  Written  as  an  im- 
promptu effusion  in  the  presence  of  tlie  asseinMed 
Academicians,  it  bears  so  many  marks  if  premeilitation 
that  no  one  could  have  been  impos>.'d  on  by  ine  artifice 
of  lm])erial  vanity.  It  tii^ravcd  .iftcr  tlie  original  au- 
tograph un  a  pair  of  marble  slabs,  from  which  have 
taken  a  copy. 

In  tlieir  nativi  drc^s  verses  are  wnrthv  nf  their 

august  author,  who  was  a  poet  of  no  mean  ability;  but 
in  the  process  of  translation  they  lose  as  much  as  a 
(  Itinesc  dues  in  e\cliani:inL^  his  tlowinq^  silks  for  the 
parsimoniuus  costume  of  the  West.  .\t  the  risk  of  pro- 
ducing a  travesty  instead  of  a  translation,  we  venture  to 
offer  a  prose  version. 

ODE 

OOUrOSEO  BY  THE  EMPEROR  CH'ien  LUNG  OS  VTSITTNG  THE  RANLIN 
YUAN  IN  1744. 

On  this  auspicious  morning  tlie  riTipicnfs  of  cclosti.Tl  favor. 
Kaiik  after  rank,  uiiiti'  in  -in>;inf;  tlio  livinn  nf  ndiilicatiiui. 
'I'h'i-.  till'  birds  renew  tlicir  plnniace,  .-mil  ilie    ia(;le,  xiaring 

heavenward.  syinlioJizes  llie  ri-.c   if  ureal  men. 
Those  here  who  cliant  poems  and  expound  the  Book  of  Changes 

are  all  worthies  of  disttngiiished  merit. 
Their  light  concentres  on  the  embroidered  throne,  and  my  pen 

distils  its  diiwery  eh.ir.ielers. 
While  incense  in  -piral  un  ailis  ri^(  ~  from  the  burning  censer. 
Before  me  is  the  pure,  bright,  pearly  Hall; 
Compared  with  this,  who  vaunts  the  genii  on  the  islands  of  the 

blest  ? 

A  hundred  years  of  aesthetic  culture  culminate  in  the  jubilee  of 
this  day. 


33» 


THE  LORE  C).   CAI  HAY 


To  maintain  a  state  of  pnwperity,  we  mu; cherish  fear,  and 

rfjoii-e  with  trembling. 
In  your  m  w  pnctiis,  therefore,  be  slow  to  extol  the  vutness  of 

the  I  jiipiri- ; 
RatluT  iiy  faithful  adv  ii  >■  tijihi'M  iIm       .■lu  . 
I  ntcd  not  seek  that  ministers  like  l"it  Yiith  shall  he  revealed 

to  me  in  dreams; 
For  at  this  tiionient  I  am  startled  to  find  myself  singing  the 

MiiiH  .  f  Van  (in  the  inidM  of  my  future  ministers). 
In  niy  lu  .n  i  1  rejoice  that  ye  hundreds  of  officers  all  know  my 

mind, 

And  will  not  fan  my  pri.h-  with  I  fiv  llattory. 
Happy  am  I  to  cntvr  this  gardiii  of  letters. 
In  the  soft  radiance  of  Indian  summer; 
To  consecrate  the  <l av  lo  the  honor  of  genius. 
And  to  gather  aruinal  my  table  the  gems  of  learning: 
But  1  hliish  !i  my  ii  "->rthiness  to  entertain  the  successors  of 
Fang  and  Tu. 

Why  should  Ma  and  Ch'iu  he  aicoimtid  solitary  <  xamples? 
Here  we  have  a  new  edition  of  the  ancient  Shih  Chii  (library 
of  the  Han-). 

We  behold  aiu  w  the  glorious  light  of  a  literary  constellation. 
But  the  ^h.iilow  i.n  the  flowery  tiles  has  reached  the  number 
eiuht  ; 

Drink  till  yoii  are  drunk;  three  limes  pass  round  the  bowl. 

When  morning  sunlight  fell  on  the  pictured  screen. 

We  opened  the  Hanlin  with  .  feast, 

The  members  assembling  in  official  robes. 

We  took  a  glance  at  the  library— enough  to  load  five  carts  and 

fill  four  stein  hoiiM  >. 
We  visit<  d  in  (jrd<  r  the  well  of  l.iu  and  tli<  pavilion  of  Ko. 
We  w.ttcli  the  pencil  trace  the  geiiimy  page. 
While  the  waters  of  Ving  Chao  (the  Pierian  Spring)  rise  to  the 

brim:  and  in  flowery  cups  we  dispense  the  fragrant  tea. 
.-'.ticiently  ministers  were  compared  to  luats  whicti  crossed  rivers; 
With  V '  ti  f  .r  my  ministers  I  would  dare  to  encounter  ihe  waves 

of  the  sea. 

Ffi'iii  lli'^  ('fTti'-i(in  nt'  Iiiiii('ri;il  tri'"i"s  \\<-  turn  .-\t,Min 
to  tlie  ;iiif.;ti-'t  1)1  itU  in  uliuse  honor  it  wa>  w  ritten,  am!  in- 


THE  IMPERIAL  ACADEMY 


qiiin  Wli.  rc  ;ir<-  the  ap.irtmciiK  in  wlii^h  tlios,.  learned 
scrihes  lahc.r  ..ii  their  elegant  tasks?  Where  is  the  hall  in 
which  they  assemble  for  the  transaction  of  business? 
W'lure  the  library  supplied  hy  Imperial  munificence  for 
tlie  choicest  scholars  of  the  kmpire?  These  questions 
are  soon  answered,  but  not  in  a  way  to  meet  the  expec- 
tations (if  the  visitor.  The  e()m|)nsinp-ro.,ms  are  those 
ranges  of  low  narrow  chamlars  on  either  hand  of  the 
entrance,  some  of  them  hearing  laliels  which  indicate 
thai  it  is  there  the  Imperial  will  puts  on  its  stately  robes; 
but  they  arc  empty,  and  neitlier  ^wept  nor  Lramished. 

Those  of  the  metnhers  who  have  special  functions  are 
emi)loy»  (I  within  the  precincts  of  the  palace,  while  z 
larire  c!a>s  known  as  |)r(iI)ationers  [irosecute  their  studies 
in  a  sei)arate  college  called  the  Slut  L  h'ang  Kuan.  Com- 
mon hall,  or  assembly-room,  there  is  none.  The  scxriety 
holds  no  Iiusntess  nu  t  tings.  Its  organization  is  desjtotic; 
the  work  of  the  inemhers  being  mapped  out  by  the  di- 
rectory, which  consists  of  the  presidents  and  vice-presi- 
dents. In  an  oiu-ot'-tli'  way  comer,  you  are  shown  a 
suite  of  small  rooms,  which  serves  as  a  vestry  for  these 
magnates,  where  they  drink  tea,  change  their  uAks, 
and  i)ust  up  their  records.  I"or  this  purjxjse  they  come 
together  nine  times  a  month,  and  remain  in  session  about 
two  hours. 

As  for  the  other  members,  they  convene  only  on  feast- 
days  as  marked  in  the  rubrics  of  the  State,  and  then  it 
is  merely  for  the  performance  of  religious  rites  or  civil 
ceremonies.  The  ritual  for  both  ( or  rather  the  calendar) 
is  conspicuously  jiosted  on  the  pillars  of  the  front  court, 
suggesting  that  the  sap  and  juice  of  the  Academy  have 
dried  up,  and  that  these  husks  of  ceremony  are  the 
residinim. 

So  far  as  this  locality  is  concerned,  this  is  true;  for 


334  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

thoujjli  the  Academy  exists,  ;i>  ^lial!  sic.  in  iindiinin- 
i-lu(l  ML^or,  tlu'  \v()''.v  iniiii.k'.l  u>  \k-  (Kmc  here  is  trans- 
tVrud  tn  I'tlur  placi..-;  aii.l  but  t.-r  occasions  of  cere- 
numv  these  halls  would  be  as  little  trodden  as  those  of 
the  ac.uliinics  of  Xiiuvch  ..r  lial.yUm.  Of  the  cere- 
nu.nas  here  pcrfornicil,  the  most  siiii  iis  is  tlie  worship 
,.f  (...iifnciiis,  Iwfore  whose  shrine  the  company  of  dis- 
cipk>  Avr^miivA  In  tiU's,  Tuar  <.r  nin-H'.  acconliiiR  to 
tlu-ir  rank,  kiucl  tlircc  times  in  tiic  upcii  court,  aii.l  mne 
i,„K-  Ih.w  tluir  heads  to  the  earth.  A  more  modern 
sape.  llan  Wen  Kunj;.  wh-.sc  chief  nicril  ua^  an  tlo- 
,|„,  ,11  .U  tnnK  iati.-n  oi'  lUiddhisni.  is  revered  as  tiie  cham- 
,,„,n  ul  oiiii.uluxN,  aiKl  honored  with  one-third  this 
nutnlier  of  prostrations. 

lUsi.U.  the  I.  ,,,,,!..-  to  ilu'^e  lii^lits  of  literature,  tliere 
is  anollier  shrine  m  which  incen.se  is  pcii.ctually  burning 
l)cfore  the  tablets  of  certain  Taoist  divinities,  among  them 
the        of  the  N'oitli  Star. 

1  he  ju.\tapusitit)n  of  lliesc  aUars  ilhistratcs  the  curious 
jnnihle  of  religious  ideas  which  prevails  even  anions  the 
edueat.  d  classes.  If  Lonfncianisni,  pure  an('.  simple,  calm 
and  philosophic,  were  to  he  found  anywhere,  where 
shouhl  we  expect  to  meet  with  it  if  not  in  the  halls  of 
the  Hanlin  N  na-i  ? 

As  to  the  lilTarv.  it  nuist  have  l)een  at  least  respeclahlc 
in  the  palmv  davs'of  Ch  ien  Lung— that  Emperor  having 
replenished' it.  as  we  have  seen,  by  a  ^dft  of  si.x  llioiisand 
volumes,  t'opies  of  a  still  larger  collection  oi  works, 
the  Su-  K  ii  Cli'i'uiu  Sim.  printe.l  in  the  earlier  part  of  the 
same  reign,  were  de{)osited  there,  as  also  a  manuscript 
eoiiy  of  tlu-  iniiiunse  r.tllectioii  knonn  as  Lo  Ta 

Tu-ii.  iUit  111  China,  lil.rarus  .ne  pcwrly  preserved; 
lHH.ks  have  no  proper  bin.ling.  the  leaves  are  loosely 
stitched,  the  paper  flimsy  and  adapted  to  the  taste  of 


THE  IMPERIAL  ACADEMY  335 


a  varict}  nf  inducts,  wliilc  tlicir  official  guardians  often 
commit  (itprcdatioiis  under  llic  inllucncc  of  aii  appetite 
not  altogether  literary. 

I'lirougli  llK>e  combined  influences,  the  ilanlin  lihrary 
has  dwiiitlled  almost  to  a  vanishing-point.  Two  of  tiic 
i)ook  HKims  heinj,'  within  the  sacred  enclosure  of  the 
Tmi)erial  pavilion,  the  writer  was  not  permitted  to  sec 
them.  TIk  jjreater  |)art  of  the  hooU^  have  heen  trans- 
ferred elsewhere;  and  the  conditi'"'  uf  tlio^c  tiiat  re- 
main may  l>c  inferred  from  that  u:  the  only  lKK)k-rcKJtn 
that  wa-.  accessilile.  Its  furiiilnri'  coiivisted  of  half  a 
dozen  cases,  some  locked,  some  open — the  latter  emjjly  ; 
the  floor  was  strewn  with  fragments  of  pafHT.  and  the 
ahsence  of  footprints  in  the  tliu  k  tK  posit  of  dii-t  miITi 
cicntly  indicated  that  the  pathway  to  this  fountain  of 
knowledge  is  nn  longer  frequented. 

But  thiiii^s  iti  (  liiiia  are  not  to  he  estiiii.ilid  hy  or- 
dinary rules.  Here  the  decay  of  a  building  is  no  indi- 
cation of  the  decadence  of  the  institution  which  it  rep- 
resents. The  public  buildings  of  the  Chinese  are,  for 
the  most  f)art.  mean  and  contemptible  in  comparison  with 
those  of  Western  nations;  Init  it  would  not  be  less  erro- 
neous for  us  to  judge  their  civilization  by  the  state  of 
their  architecture  tlian  I  t  tliem.  as  they  aie  jirone  to  do, 
to  measure  ours  by  tiie  tape-line  of  our  tailor.  With 
them  architecture  is  not  a  fine  art ;  public  edifices  of  every 
class  are  constructed  011  a  miif'Tiii  mode!:  ami  even  in 
private  dwellings  there  is  no  such  tiling  as  novelty  or 
variety  of  design.  The  original  idea  of  both  is  incapable 
of  much  develtjpmiiit  :  the  wooden  frame  and  limit.'d 
height  giving  them  an  air  of  meanness ;  while  the 
windowless  wall,  which  caution  or  custom  requires  to 
be  drawn  an  mud  every  considerable  luiilditig.  excludes 
it  from  the  public  view,  and  consequently  <liminishcs,  if 


336  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

it  (Iocs  not  destrov,  tlit-  <U-sirc  for  xstlutic  .tTect.  Ma- 
loriali^tic  the  po.plo  arc  in  their  habits  ol  tlunight, 
iluir  -ovmuncnt.  hasol  i,n  ancient  maxims,  has  sought 
to  repress  rather  than  enconrage  the  ten.Un.y  t..  luxury 
i„  this  .lireetion.  The  K^nius  of  China  does  not  affect 
excellence  in  material  arts.  With  more  propriety  than 
ancient  Rome  she  might  apply  to  herself  the  hnes  of 
the  Roman  poet : 

"  Excudent  alii  spirantia  mollius  sera 

.    .   regere  imperio  populos   ...  ^ 
llx  tibi  erunt  artes;  pacisqiic  imponere  morem. 

V„r  nnt  onlv  is  tlic  Chinese  notoriously  backward  in 
all  those  accnniplisliments  in  which  the  Roman  excelled, 
hut.  without  being  warlike,  he  has  c.,ualle.l  the  Roman 
;„  fh-  .•xt.nt  ..I  hi-  o.tKiuesls,  and  surpassed  him  m  the 
permanence  <.f  ins  possessions.  With  him  the  art  of 
P,wemnunt  is  the  "  great  study ;  "  and  all  else— science, 
litiiature,  leU^n. m— merely  sulisidiary. 

For  .six  hun<l-e<l  years,  with  the  exception  of  a  brief 
interval,  the  Hanlin  has  bad  its  home  within  the  walls 
„f  I'eking  witiu  -Mntj  fn-ni  this  p.  .4ition  the  rise  of 
three  Imperial  dvnast.es  and  the  overthrow  of  two. 
Under  the  Mongols  it  stood,  not  on  its  present  site,  but  a 
little  to  the  wcM  of  the  present  dnnn-tower.  Kuhlai  and 
his  Miccessors  testified  their  sense  ..f  its  importance  by 
installing  it  in  an  obi  palace  of  the  Ch'in  Tartars.  Ao 
Yang  Ch'u.  a  di.scontented  scholar  of  a  lat-r  avrc  aUudtng 
to  tire  contrast  presented  by  the  quarters  it  then  txcupied. 
laments  in  verse 


"The  «plenHi(i  .ibf'Hc  of  the  old  H.m)in, 
The  gliUering  palace  of  the  Prince  of  Ch'in." 


THE  IMPERIAL  ACADEMY  337 

Tin-  Mint,-  cmiuiDrs  n-iiinvt.(l  it  t..  its  present  position, 
app.  .priatiMj,'  for  its  use  the  site  ol  an  old  granary.  The 
Ch'ing  emperors  had  a  palace  to  bestow  on  the  Mongolian 
la  iias  l)tit  allowed  the  Hanlin  to  remain  in  its  contracted 
quarters,  erecting  at  the  same  time,  in  immediate  con- 
tiguity, a  palace  for  one  of  their  pritues.    This  is  now 
occiipit.l  !)>  the  British  LiK'afion.  wiiu.r  loftv  chimneys 
overlook  the  grounds  of  the  Acadnuy,  and  s.)  nunacc  the 
feng-shui  (good  luck)  of  the  entire  literary  corporation. 
If  this  were  the  whole  of  its  history,  the  Hanlin  would 
still  enjoy  th(  distinction  cf  iKint,-  more  than  twin-  as 
ancient  as  any  similar  institution  now  extant  in  the 
Western  world ;  but  this  last  period— one  of  few  vicissi- 
tudes—covers  no  more  than  half  ii>  career,    lis  annals 
run  l).-.ck  to  twice  six  hundred  years,  and  during  that 
long  peri(xl  it  has  shared  the  fortunes  and  followed  the 
footsteps  of  the  several  dynastie  s  uliicli  have  contended 
for  the  mastery  of  the  linipire.    l-rom  its  nature  and 
constitution  attached  to  the  conrt.  it  has  ini,.ratc(l  with 
the  court,  now  ii-rth,  now  south,  until  the  capital  l>ecame 
fixed  in  its  pri^scnt  {wsitinn.    At  the  hei^innini,'  of  the 
fift(>('rth  century,  the  Academy  was  for  a  few  years  at 
Nankini;.  where  IhiULf  Wu  made  his  capital.  During 
the  period  of  the  Crusades  it  accompanied  the  court  of  the 
Southern  Sungs  as  they  retirc<l  before  the  invading 
Tartars,  and  fixed  at  Ilangchou  the  seat  of  their  semi- 
empire.     I'"or  tivo  centnrio  previous  it  had   -hed  its 
lu.stro  <m  Pieti  Liang   (Kai  Feng)  the  capital  of  the 
Northern  Sungs. 

During  the  five  shfirt  dyna'ties  ( 'ki;  *''''"'^  it  disap- 
pears ami'i>t  the  confusion  of  perpetual  war,  though  even 
then  each  aspirant  for  "  The  Yellow  "  surrounded  him- 
self with  some  semblance  of  the  Hanlin,  as  a  circum- 


le 


338  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

stance  essential  to  Imperial  stale;  but   its  earliest. 
l)nt:liu.-t  ami  luiv.  est  lH-rio<l  of  rip^M-  was  ilie  wi^n  of 
iI.e'^r  aMK-.  irom  i>J7  to  y04,  or  truni  the  rise  ol  M.ilioiiiet 
till  the  .Uatli  of  Alfred.   l'«»r  China  this  is  not  an  anaent 
date;  but  it  was  ^cairdy  in.ssihle  that  siuh  a  body. 
vMth  such  objects,  slumld  come  into  existence  at  any 
earlier  epodi.     I  luler  the  more  ancient  <lynasties  the 
range  of  hterainre  was  limii.  d   and  the  style  of  coni- 
Ixisiti.Mi  ludr     h  I-  not  till  ilu  Iomk  rei^n  "f  the  house  of 
llan  that  the  laiiKiiHUc  obtains  its  full  maturity;  but 
even  then  taste  was  little  cultivated— the  writers  of  that 
day  beiiiK.  as  the  native  critics  say,  more  studious  of 
matter  than  of  manner.    iHiniiK  the  slu.ri  lived  dynasties 
that  followed  the  Man  and  Ch'in,  the  struRRle  for  p<nver 
allowed  no  breathing-time  for  the  nvixal  of  letters;  but 
wluii  the  luiipire,  so  long  drenched  in  blood,  was  at 
leii!,nli  united  under  the  sway  of  the  Tangs,  the  begin- 
ning of  the  new  era  of  peace  and  prosinrrity  was  marked 
by  an  outburst  of  literary  splendor. 
'  bur  twenty  years  Kao  Tsu,  the  founder,  had  been  in- 
volved in  sauKUinary  r  .till.  i^.     1„  sticli  circumstances 
valor  was  virii'e.  an>l  inUuary  .skill  comprised  all  that 
was  valued  m  karmni;.    In  the  work  of  .lon-slic  con- 
quest, his  most  efficient  .li-l  was  his  second  son.  .-)bih  Min. 
Destined  to  .onspUti'  viut  bis  father  bad  begun,  hut 
with  a  ueniiis  more  comprehensive  and  a  taste  more  re- 
fined, tliis  voting  prince  was  to  Kao  Tsu  what  Alexander 
u;,s  tn  i'liilip.  or  1  iv.leriek  the  '  Ireat  to  the  mnch  Fred- 
ciK-k  W  illiam.    StuJym-  the  poets  and  pbilosophers  by 
tlu'  liubi  of  bis  eaiup-tires.  he  no  sooner  found  himself 
in  undisputed  iM)ssession  of  the  throtte  than  be  addresse.l 
himself  to  the  i)roniotion  of  learning.    In  'his  be  was 
only  revert  ini;  to  the  traditions  of  an  empire  which  from 
the' earliest  times  had  always  been  a  worshipper  of  letters. 


I  HK  IMPERIAL  ACADEMY 


lUU  Tai  Tsimi^  iilic  natm-  by  wliicli  he  is  called  in 
lli.stun  j  did  nut  ciiiitiiic  hiiiist  lf  to  lite  l.rairii  paili  ol"  tr.i- 
•litimi;  lie  i.ssind  a  divrcc  lliat  incii  of  uhihly  .slioulil  be 
soiif^ht  out  and  brought  to  court  from  their  retired 
Iiom.s  :md  Mcrct  bi(liiij,'-i)!acts.  His  pmlecessors  itad 
tloiic  the  ^ann.■;  but  I'ai  I'sung  formed  tliem  Into  a  body 
under  the  name  of  Wen  Hsueh  Kuan.  an<l  installed  them 
111  a  iM.rtioii  of  his  palace,  wlurc,  ilic  historian  tells  us, 
be  was  accustomed,  in  tlie  intervals  of  business  and  late 
in  the  hours  of  the  night,  to  converse  with  tluse  learned 
doctors.  The  numlier  of  iuse  emiiunt  scholars  was 
ci},diteen,  in  allusion  p< 

repudiate  the  idea)  to  the  miinber  of  Ariians  or  di.scijil  -s 
uhci  cninposrd  the  iiuier  circle  of  the  family  of  Buddha — 
I'.uddhism  being  at  that  time  in  Inj^li  repn  c  \.  t^^- 
these  the  most  prominent  were  Fang  Vuar.  (.iu).  ...ul 
Tu  Ju  llui,  who  were  afterwards  advanced  to  tivj  rr^nk 
of  ministers  of  State.  We  have  already  ^eeii  their  names 
in  tile  Udt  of  Ch'ien  Lung,  where  they  are  alluded  to 
as  the  typical  ancestors  of  the  literary  brotherhood.  This 
was  ilic  t^rrm  of  the  Ilanlin  Yuan. 

L  nd.  r  previous  reigns  letters  had  been  valued  soklv  as 
an  aid  to  politics,  and  scholarship  as  a  proof  of  (lualniea- 
tion  for  civil  employment.  I5ut  from  this  time  letters 
began  to  assume  the  position  of  a  final  cause,  and  civil 
employment  was  made  use  of  as  an  incentive  to  en- 
courage their  cultivation.  rn%i  iisly  to  this  the  single 
exercise  of  answering  in  writing  a  series  of  .|iies!ioiis 
intended  to  gauge  the  erudition  and  test  the  aciiinen  of 
the  candidate  was  all  that  was  required  in  examinations 
lor  tile  civil  service;  Inn  from  fliis  epoch  tiivte  pi.sided 
in  the  literarv  arena,  and  com|R)sitions,  lioth  in  prose  an<l 
verse,  in  which  elegance  of  style  is  the  chief  aim,  he- 
canie  thenceforth  a  leading  feature  in  the  ctirriculum. 


340  THE  I-ORE  OF  CATHAY 

rii.ii  won.li.  1  lu  t  uliicli  catches  tlu-  fish  for  the 
MTvicc  of  tlu-  i;in|HT<ir.  irid  all<'ws  tlic  sinatlcr  t'iu>  to 
>li|.  tlir..n;;li  .iiiMii-  ilu-  i1\iki>I>        far  p.  t  f.ctcl 

tlial  ill  llu  lapM-  cil  a  tin  .ii^aii.l  siai>  ii  ha-  im.K  rm.iic 
no  very  itinx>nant  change.   As  miKht  haw  In.  ii  •  nil 
the  c|HH:h  I'f  il"    1   ■       I»i  niu  (li-tiiii;ui-hi  .1  almvc  all 
|>rt'CC<HnK  .lMta>tu-  a>  tlic  a>;f  i.f  i>.wls.   la   I  ai  IVi  — 
whose  !>rilitatit  peniiis  was  Wlieved  to  Ik-  an  incarnation  of 
the  j^Mldcn  !  -lit  of  till'  planet  \'enu-     !  ii  I'll   Han  \u 
ana  ntlurs  >iiiil  lustte  on  it-  oia'innn  ieit;ii>    l  lieir  \\t.rk> 
have  l.einine  tlu  acknowlediied  model  of  po«rtic  comivmi- 
tinn,  fmm  wtiuli  nn  niiMlriti  wiitir  «lan  -  \i<  lUpart  ;  ami. 
1111. liT  \hv  .11, .  i.s,  tiile  ..I  tin-  poetiy  of  Tant,'-  ''">  ''^ve 
added  to  ilu  luiiH  ria!  crown  an  amaranthine  wreatli  such 
as  no  other  dvna^ty  ha-  i\ir  w-rn.    1  i    lai   I'ei  was 
admitte.l   to  Acadeiu;.    l.v    Mhik    liiiani;  or  lliin 

Tsuni;;  the  lunpemr  oii  that  oiva-i.'ii  Kuiiit;  liini  a  feast 
and,  as  native  authors  say,  condesceiidinj,'  to  stir  the 
p,,ir-  -onp  uitli  llir  liaiiil  that  hore  tli-  -leptre. 

It  is  not  a  little  r.iiiarkahle  thai  the  art  of  pnntinK 
made  its  appearance  ahnost  simultaneously  with  the 
fortnalioii  oi  tlit  Aradciuv  md  t!a-  :  ■ .  ,r-aiii/a( ion  of  the 
examination  system.  ( )ri>;iiiatiiiK  in  a  cmiiiion  imi.ulse. 
all  three  interacted  on  each  other,  and  worked  toRether 
as  powerful  ai;eiu-ie>  in  airrviti-  foi-Aard  the  o.ininoii 
movtnutit.  The  method  of  stamping  cli.iracters  on  silk 
or  paper  had  no  <lonl>t  heen  discovered  loni,'  hefore; 
but  it  was  under  thi-  -IsnaMy  that  it  was  tlrM  emi-lov.d 
for  the  reiirodiKtion  of  IxH.ks  on  a  larjje  scale.  It  was 
not.  howev.r.  so  emplovid  in  the  rei^n  of  Tai  TsunR. 
That  monarch,  resolvini;  t  •  found  a  lil.rarv  that  should 
surpass  in  exu  "i  and  iiiaLrnit'i.  i'iu  e  anviliiiii.r  that  had  heen 
known  in  the  pa-l.  was  iinal.le  io  imajiine  a  more  expe- 
ditious, or,  at  least,  a  more  satisfactory,  niethoti  of  pro- 


THE  IMPERIAL  ACADEMY 


(hu-inf?  tiooks  than  the  slow  proctus  of  transcriptirm. 

l-'nr  tliis  |>iiri>nNf  a  lnwt  uf  jxin  ils  umiM  ).<■  n(|iiiri  i|  ■  and 
Tai  r.suii^',  in  thv  intin^t  nl  his  lilir.iry,  niatU-  a  fresh 
levy  of  learned  nu-n  who  were  cU*}»af»t  scrilws  as  well 
as  al)lc  sihdlars.  ilusi^,  Hun  'I'Mtnij,  (Hic  of  liis  suc- 
cessors, aililid  another  Inxly  of  scholars,  and  combining 
the  three  classes  into  one  society  called  it  hy  the  nan:e 
of  llaniiii.  or  the  "  I'lin  of  I'l  in  iN  "  iliout  \.  i>.  74f>— 
a  designation  tiiat  was  now  more  a|)])ro|iriate  than  it 
wotdd  have  l)een  when  the  numlur  of  its  tnemlK'rs  fell 
shi  u  of  a  score. 

When  tlie  ])rintiii;j;-press  was  introduced  as  an  auxiliary 
in  tlie  mannfaciuri'  of  hooks,  it  relieved  the  imperial 
■m  iiIms  (if  a  imrtinu  oi  iln  ir  lali'irs.  Inu  it  ilicl  ii  4  super- 
sriK-  ihcin.     Keli  .i-i'ii  •   the   (lrui!i;(T\    of  copvin;;. 

the\  Were  ilee  to  devoti-  their  leisuri  In  cnniposition ; 
and  in  China  in  tlie  eighth  centtiry,  as  in  Rnropc  in  the 
ftftrculli.  the  art  of  priiuitii:  iinp.irt<-'I  i  powerfld  stimu- 
lus to  tile  intellectual  activiiy  of  the  a,L;e. 

Rismg,  as  we  have  seen,  in  the  halcyon  <lays  of  Tai 
Tsuui;,  the  llaiihn  ^'ll.•>^  wa>  iml  loiu;  in  ;it l ainiili,^  its 
full  tlevelopmetil.  In  lite  reij^M  of  llnii  1  suuji  it  re- 
ceived the  name  hy  which  it  is  now  known,  and  through 
twelve  centuries,  from  thai  ila\  t  i  ihis.  it 'has  under- 
gone no  essential  modilication.  eitlu  r  iu  its  objects,  inem- 
l)ershii),  or  mode  of  operation :  if  we  e\ce[)t.  perhaps,  the 
changes  rnpiired  to  adapt  it  to  tlu'  duplicate  otTicial  sys- 
if-ni  of  the  presiut  dynasty.  Its  con  nition  and  func- 
Hoiis.  as  laid  dowti  in  the  Ta  Cli'iuii  11  ui  Tii-ii,  or  Insti- 
tni'  -  of  the  I'miiirr.  are  as  follows: 

I  There  shall  Ik-  two  p^^'^idciu -  -  one  Manchu  and 
oiu'  I  hinese.  I  luy  sIkiU  supi  riutiud  the  composition 
of  ('ynastic  histories,  charts,  lM«)ks,  Im|>erial  decrees,  and 
lifenry  matters  in  general.  ♦ 


MICROCOPY  RESOLUTION  TEST  CHART 

ANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHART  No  2 


A    /APPLIED  IM/IGE  In 

Eo'.l  Mo"  '-.I'l-el 
h^sifi.  Ht-m  Torn  lSA 
■ '  b)  *ft^     0300  -  Phoi* 
{"6)  288  -  ^98^  -  Fa« 


342  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

2.  The  vice-presidents  shall  be  of  two  classes ;  namely, 
the  readers,  and  the  expositors  to  his  Majesty  the  Em- 
peror. In  each  class  there  shall  be  three  Manchus  and 
three  Chinese. 

■^.  Besides  these,  the  regular  members  shall  consist  of 
three  classes— namely,  Hsiu  Cluian,  Piin  llsiu,  and  Ch'ion 
Tao— in  all  of  wliicli  the  number  is  not  limited.  These, 
together  with  the  vice-presidents,  shall  be  charged  with 
the  composition  and  compilation  of  books,  and  with 
daily  attendance  at  stated  times  on  the  classic  studies  of 
his  Majesty. 

4.  There  shall  be  a  class  of  candidates  on  proba- 
tion, termed  Slui  Ch"i  Sbili,  "  lucky  scholars."  the  num- 
ber not  fixed.  These  shall  not  be  charged  with  any 
specific  duty,  but  shall  prosecute  their  studies  in  the 
sch.iols  attached  to  the  .\cademy.  They  shall  study  both 
.\lanclni  and  Chinese.  Their  studies  shall  be  directed  by 
two  professors — one  Manchu  and  one  Chinese — assisted 
by  other  members  below  the  grade  of  readers  and  exposi- 
tors, who  shall  act  as  divisional  tutors.  At  the  expiration 
of  three  years  they  shall  be  tested  as  to  their  ability  in 
poetical  composition,  the  Emperor  in  person  deciding 
their  s;r;id(.s,  af'er  which  they  shall  be  admitted  to  an 
audience  ;•  those  of  the  first  three  grades  being  received 
into  full  membership,  and  those  of  the  fourth  grade, 
which  comprises  the  remainder,  being  assigned  to  posts 
in  the  civil  service,  or  retained  for  another  three  years  to 
study  and  be  examined  with  the  next  class. 

5.  There  shall  be  two  recorders— one  Manchu  and  o.ie 
Chinese.  These  shall  be  charged  with  the  sending  and 
receiving  of  documcmts. 

6.  There  shall  be  two  librarians— one  Manchu  and 
,„„.  ri,iiu  M'  These  shall  be  charged  with  the  care  of  the 
books  and  charts. 


THE  IMPERIAL  ACADEMY 


7.  There  shall  be  four  proof-readers — two  Manchus 

and  two  ("hincsc.  Tliese  sliall  attend  to  the  revision  and 
collection  of  histories,  memorials,  and  other  literary 
compositions. 

8.  There  shall  be  forty-four  clerks— forty  .\Janchus 
and  four  from  the  Cliinese  Hanners.  These  shall  be 
employed  in  copying  and  translation. 

9.  The  exi)ositors  at  the  classic  table  (of  the  Em- 
peror) shall  he  sixteen  in  number — ei<;ht  Manchus  and 
eight  Chinese.  The  Manchus  nuist  be  officers  wiio  have 
risen  from  the  third  rank  or  higher.  The  Chinese  also 
must  1)0  of  the  third  rank  or  hitjher,  havini,'  rism  from 
the  Academy.  These  shall  be  appointed  by  the  Kniperor 
on  the  recommendation  of  the  Academy.  The  classic 
feasts  shall  take  i)1ace  tuice  a  year— namely,  in  the  second 
and  the  eighth  month;  at  which  time  one  Manclui  and 
one  Chinese  shall  expound  the  Book  of  History,  and  one 
Manchu  and  one  Chinese  shall  expound  the  otiier  classics, 
to  be  selected  from  a  list  prepared  by  the  Academv. 
The  subject  and  sense  of  the  passages  to  be  treated  on 
these  occasions  shall  in  all  cases  be  arranged  by  consul- 
tation with  the  presidents  of  the  Academy,  and  laid  before 
the  Emperor  for  his  approval.  When  the  Emperor 
visits  the  "  Palace  of  Literary  Glory,"  these  expositors, 
together  with  the  other  officers,  shall  perform  their  pros- 
trations at  the  foot  of  the  steps,  after  which  their  going 
in  and  out  shall  be  according  to  the  form  prescribed  in 
the  Code  of  Rites.  When  they  shall  have  finished  their 
expositions,  they  shall  respectfully  listen  to  the  discourses 
of  the  Fmperor. 

10.  The  daily  expositors  shall  be  tweiUy-eight  Man- 
chus and  twelve  Chinese.  They  shall  be  above  the  grade 
of  Ch'ien  Tao  and  below  that  of  President,  and  may  dis- 
charge this  duty  without  resigning  their  original  offices.  - 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

1 1  Pravor.  an.l  sacritk-ial  acMresses  for  several  occa- 
sions shall  be  drawn  up  by  the  Hanlin  and  submitted  to 
the  Emperor  for  his  approva!  These  occasions  arc  the 
follcnving.  nanu.lv :  at  the  Altar  of  Heaven  :  the  Ancestral 
Teniplc:  the  Imperial  Cemeteries;  the  Altar  of  Aj;n- 
culinre  :  sacrifices  to  mountains,  seas,  and  lakes,  and  to 
the  ancient  sa^e  Confucius. 

T2  The  llanlin  shall  respectfully  prepare  honorary 
titles  for  the  .lowager  ..upresses:  they  shall  also  draw  vn> 
patents  of  dignity  for  the  chief  concnlunes  of  the  late 
fmncror:  forms  of  investiture  for  new  empresses  „nd  the 
chief  concubines  of  new  emperors  ;  patents  of  nobtuty  for 
princes,  dukes,  generals,  and  for  feudal  states ;  tosethe 
lith  inscriptions  on  State  seals-all  of  winch  shall  hrst 
be  submitted  for  the  Imperial  approbation. 

1,    The  Hanlin  shall  respectfully  propose  posthu 
mous  titles  for  deceased  emperors  together  -ith  monu^ 
,,ental  inscriptions  and  sacrit.c.al  -^dresses  for  those 
who  are  accorded  the  honor  of  a  posthumous  title-a  1 
of  which  shall  be  submittal  to  the  Emperor  for  approval. 

U  The  presidents  of  the  Hanlin  shall  be  cx  oifiao 
vice-presidents  of  the  Bureau  of  Contemporary  Histon^. 
In  which  the  Hanlin  of  subordinate  grades  shall  ass,st  as 
clTpilers  and  composers,  reverentially  recordmg  the 
sacred  instructions  (of  the  Emperor) 

15  Prescribes  the  order  of  atten<lance  for  the  Hanhn 
when  the  Emperor  appears  in  P"^!'*^,.^""'-;  .  , 

16  Prescribes  the  number  and  quality  of  those  of  the 
Hanlin  who  shall  attend  his  Majesty  during  hts  sojourn 
of  the  Yuan  Ming  Yuan  (Summer  Palace). 

*  ;  Provides  ;hat  those  members  of  the  Hanlin  whose 
duty  it  is  to  accompany  his  Majesty  on  v;;"*;"^ 
jouLvs  heyond  the  capital  shall  be  recommended  by  the 
presidents  of  the  Academy. 


THE  IMPERIAL  ACADEMY  345 


18.  Provides  that,  when  the  Emperor  sends  a  deputy 
to  sacrifice  to  Confucius,  certain  .senior  members  of  tlie 
Academy  sliall  make  oflferings  to  the  twelve  chief 
disciples  of  the  Sage. 

19.  The  Hanlin,  in  conjunction  with  the  Board  of 
Rites,  sliall  copy  out  and  publisli  the  best  specimens 
ot  liic  essays  produc  cd  in  the  provincial  and  metropolitan 
examinations. 

_'0.  Prescribes  the  form  to  be  used  in  reporting  or 
recommending  members  for  promotion,  and  provides  that 
when  an  examination  is  held  for  the  selection  of  Im- 
perial censors,  the  Pien  TIsiu  and  Cb'ien  Tao,  on  recom- 
mendation, may  be  admitted  as  candidates. 

21.  Regulates  examinations  for  the  admission  of  pro- 
bationary member^. 

22.  Admits  i)robationers,  after  three  years  of  study, 
to  an  examination  for  places  in  the  Academy  or  ofRcial 
posts  elsewhere. 

2T,.  Provides  for  examinations  '^f  regular  members 
in  presence  of  the  Emperor,  at  uncertain  times,  in  order 
to  prevent  their  relapse  into  idleness. 

24.  Provides  for  the  promotion  of  members  who  are 
employed  as  instructors  or  probationers. 

Such  is  the  official  account  of  the  Hanlin  as  at  present 
constituted;  but  wbat  inform.ition  docs  it  convey?  After 
all  we  have  done  in  the  way  of  explanation,  in  connec- 
tion with  a  rather  free  translation,  it  still  remains  a  con- 
fused mass  of  titles  and  ceremonies,  utterly  devoid  of 
any  principle  of  order ;  and,  without  the  help  of  collateral 
information,  much  of  it  would  be  altogether  unintelligi- 
ble. Interrogate  it  as  to  the  number  of  meinbers,  the 
qualifications  reciuircd  for  menibersbip,  tlv  duration  of 
membership,  the  manner  of  obtaining  then  -eats  (a  term 
which  must  be  used  metaphorically  of  an  association  in 


346  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

which  all  hut  a  few  are  expected  to  stand),  and  it  is 

silent  as  tiie  Sphinx.  ShouUl  une,  with  a  view  to  satis- 
fvin-,^  furiosity  (mi  tlie  first  point,  attempt  to  reckon  up  the 
nuiii'.xr  of  classes  or  divisions,  to  say  nothing  of  indi- 
viduals, the  number  being  ii  -ome  cases  purposely  in- 
definite, be  would  certainly  f.i.i  of  success.  Some  who 
are  enumerated  in  those  divisions  are  official  employes 
of  the  society,  but  not  members ;  and  yet  there  is  nothing 
in  the  text  to  indicate  the  f.ict :  e.  g..  the  proof-readers 
are  Hanlins,  the  copyists  and  translators  are  not;  the 
librarians  are  Hanlin  ^he  recorders  are  not.  We  shall 
endeavor  brictly  to  elucidate  tliese  several  points. 

l.:nlike  the  academies  of  Europe,  which  are  voluntary 
associations  for  the  a<lvancement  of  learning  under  royal 
or  imperial  patronage,  the  Hanlin  is  a  l)o.ly  of  civil  func- 
tionaries, a  govem)iient  organ,  an  integral  part  of  the 
machinery  of  the  ;ate;  its  mainspring,  as  that  of  every 
other  portion,  is  in  the  throne.  Its  members  do  not  seek 
admission  from  love  of  learning,  but  for  the  distinction 
it  confers,  and  especially  as  a  passport  to  lucrative  em- 
ployment. They  are  consequently  in  a  state  of  perpetual 
traiisition,  spending;  from  six- to  ten  years  in  attendance 
at  the  Academy,  and  then  going  into  the  provinces  as 
triennial  examiners,  as  superintendents  of  education,  or 
even  in  civil  or  military  employments  which  have  no 
special  relation  to  letters.  In  all  these  situations  they 
proudly  retain  the  title  ^  members  of  the  Imperial 
Academy;  and,  in  their  memorials  to  the  throne,  one  m:.y 
sometimes  see  it  placed  above  that  of  provincial  treasurer 
or  judge. 

There  are.  moreover,  several  ymnrus  in  the  capital  that 
are  manned  almost  exclusively  from  the  members  of  the 
Hanlin.  f  U  these  the  principal  are  the  Chan  Shih  Fu  and 
the  Ch'i  Chil  Ch  u;  both  of  which  are,  in  fact,  nothing 


THE  IMPERIAL  ACADEMY  347 


more  than  appondaijcs  of  the  Academy.  The  former,  the 
name  of  which  affords  no  hint  of  its  functions,  appears  to 
bear  some  sncli  relation  to  the  heir-apparent  as  the 
Hanlin  tUx-s  to  the  limpcror.  The  hcgparly  huikhng  in 
whidi  its  official  meetings  are  held  may  he  seen  on  the 
banks  of  the  canal  opposite  to  the  Ilritish  l.ej^ation.* 
It  is,  nevertheless,  regarde{l  as  a  highly  aristocratic  body, 
and  gives  employment  to  a  score  or  so  of  Academicians. 
The  other,  which  may  he  described  as  the  T^iure.in  of 
Daily  Record,  employs  some  twenty  more  of  the  Hanlins 
in  the  capacity  of  lioswells  to  the  reigning  Emperor,  their 
duty  being  to  preserve  a  minute  record  of  all  his  words 
and  actions. 

Among  the  Imperial  censors,  who  form  a  distinct 

tribunal,  a  majority  perhaps  are  taken  from  the  ranks  of 
the  Hanlin,  but  they  are  not  exclusively  so;  while  the 
higher  members  of  the  Hanlin,  w-ithout  be  ng  connected 
with  the  censoratc,  are  ex  officio  counsellors  to  his 
Majesty.  Of  those  whose  names  are  on  the  rolls  as  active 
members  of  the  Academy  in  regular  attendance  o!i  its 
meetin^^j,  the  number  does  not  exceed  three  or  four 
score ;  though  on  great  occasions,  such  as  the  a<lvent 
of  an  emperor,  the  ex-members  who  are  within  reach  are 
called  in  and  swell  the  number  to  twice  or  thrice  that 
figure.  Besides  these  arc  the  probationers  or  c;indidates. 
to  the  number  of  a  hundred  or  more,  who  pursue  their 
studies  for  three  years  under  the  auspices  of  the  Acad- 
emy, and  then  stand  e.<amination  for  membership.  If 
successful,  thev  take  their  places  with  the  rank  and  file 
of  the  Imperial  scribes ;  otherwise,  they  are  assigned 
posts  in  the  civil  service,  such  as  those  of  sub-prefect, 
district  magistrate,  etc.,  carrying  'ith  them  in  every 
position  the  distinction  of  having  oeen  connected,  for 
*  Used  as  a  refuge  for  native  Christians  in  the  summer  of  igoa 


348  THE  LORE  OV  CATHAV 

however  brief  ;i  liiiu\  witli  the  ImiH-riat  Acailcmy.  With- 
out counting  tlio.-e  njicttil  caiulidatcs,  whose  c1  .im  to 
the  title  is  more  than  doubtful,  the  actual  an.l  passed 
members  iimhahls  Wo  not  fall  short  of  five  huiulred. 

The  qualifications  for  inemljei>liii)  are  two— natural 
talent  and  rare  acquisitions  in  all  the  departments  of 
Chinese  scholarship;  hut  of  these  vc  shall  treat  more  at 
length  hereafter.  The  new  nv  "s  are  nut  admitted 
by  vote  of  the  association,  no  .lointed  by  the  will  of 
their  Imperial  master.  The  seats  in  thi.-  <  )lMniuis  are  put 
up  to  competition  and.  as  in  the  Hindu  niythulogy,  the 
gifted  aspirant,  though  without  name  or  influence,  and 
in  spite  of  opposition,  may  win  the  immortal  avtrcct. 
None  enter  as  the  result  of  capricious  favor,  an''  ">  one 
is  excluded  in  cuiiseqiieiice  of  unfounded  prejua. 

The  Hanlin  Yuan  has  not.  therefore,  like  the  Institiite 
of  France,  a  loi.g  list  of  illustrious  names  who  acquire 
additional  distinction  from  having  been  rejected  or  over- 
looked;  neither  does  it  suffer  from  lampoons  such  as 
that  which  a  disai)i)ointed  poet  fixed  on  his  own  tomb- 
stone at  the  expense  of  the  French  Academy— 

"  Ci  Ril  PIron.  (ini  lu-  fiit  ricn. 
Pas  nieiiie  acaiU  niicieii." 

In  the  Chinese  Academy  the  ne\vl>  initiateil  has  the  proud 
consciousness  that  lie  owes  everything  to  himself,  and 
nothing  to  the  complaisance  of  his  associates  or  the 
patronage  of  his  superiors. 

Of  the  duties  of  the  Hanlin.  these  official  regulations 
afTord  us  a  better  idea— indicating  each  line  of  intel- 
lectual activity,  from  the  selection  of  f;mcy  names  for 
Tioople  in  hi<jh  position  up  to  the  conductiiig  of  pro- 
vincial examinations  and  the  writing  of  national  histories; 


THE  IMPERIAL  ACADEMY 


but  the  advancoiiK-nt  of  si  .ciicc  is  not  among  llicm.  They 
do  nothinpf  to  extend  the  boundaries  of  human  knowl- 
c(l<,'i',  simply  lit-caiisf  tliiy  ai>'  imt  aware  that  after  the 
achievements  of  Confucius  and  tlic  ancient  sages  any 
new  world  remains  to  be  conquered.  The  former  Em- 
peror, liy  •-pieial  decree,  referred  to  the  Academy  the 
responsibility  of  proposing  honorific  titles  for  the  cm- 
presses  repent.  The  result  was  the  pair  of  ciiiihou  ous 
pendants.  K  ang  I  and  Kang  Ching.  with  which  the 
Imperial  lailies  wen  (leeor;ited  on  retirintj  from  the 
regency  ;  and  we  are  left  to  imagine  the  anxious  deliber- 
ations, tiic  laborious  search  for  precedents,  the  minute 
comparison  of  the  historical  and  poetical  allusions  in- 
volved in  each  tit'c,  before  the  learned  body  were  able  to 
arrive  at  a  decision.  Since  that  date  he  surviving 
Dowa,q:er  has  been  honored  by  twelve  syllabi  =;  additional. 

The  composition  of  prayers  to  be  used  by  .lis  Majesty 
or  his  deputies  on  sundry  occasions,  and  the  writing  of 
in.scriptions  for  the  temples  of  various  divinities,  in  ac- 
knowledgment of  services,  are  among  the  lighter  tasks  of 
the  Hanlin.  They  are  not,  however,  like  that  above 
referred  to,  of  rare  occurrence.  Ambitious  of  anything 
ffiat  can  confer  distinction  on  their  respective  localities, 
the  people  of  numerous  districts  petition  the  throne  to 
honor  the  temple  where  they  worship  by  the  gift  of  an 
Imperial  inscription.  They  ascertain  that  some  titne 
within  the  past  twenty  years  the  divinity  there  worshipped 
has  interfered  to  prevent  a  swollen  river  from  bursting 
its  banks:  to  avert  a  p1ap;ne  of  locusts,  or  arrest  a  pro- 
tracted drought ;  or,  by  a  nocturnal  display  of  spectral 
armies,  to  drive  away  a  horde  of  rebels.  The\  rej  ort  the 
facts  in  the  case  to  their  magistrates,  who  verify  them, 
and  forward  the  application  to  the  Emperor,  who  in  turn 
directs  the  members  of  the  Hanlin  to  write  the  desired 


I  HE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


inscri|ition.  Cases  of  this  kind  al»ound  in  tlie  Peking 
(lazitto ;  one  of  those  best  known  to  foreigners  being  that 
of  Sze  T'ai  Wang  at  Tientsin,  whose  merit  in  checking;, 
iiiidir  till-  avalar  of  a  serpent,  the  disastrous  floods  of 
1871  obiaiiied  from  tlie  Kniperor  the  honor  of  a  com- 
memorative tablet  written  by  the  ductors  of  tlie  Hanlin. 

If  to  tlu'.i'  we  add  thi'  scrolls  and  lalilits  wriltiii  by 
Imperial  decree  fur  schools  anil  cliaritahle  institutions 
tliroui^hout  the  Empire,  we  must  confess  that  the  Hanlin 
^■(Ktn  niii;lit  lai.i  for  ii^clf  the  title  vl  Academy  of 
Inscriptions  in  a  sense  somewhat  different  from  that  in 
which  the  term  is  employed  in  the  Western  World.  In- 
deed, so  (hspniportioiiale  is  thr  ;i;uc  allntticl  in  the  con- 
stitution to  these  petty  details  tiiat  the  reader,  judging 
from  that  document  alone,  would  be  liable  to  infer  that 
the  Academicians  were  seldom  burdened  with  any  more 
seriiiiis  nnploynient.  lUit  let  him  go  into  one  of  the 
great  libraries  connected  with  the  court  (unhappily  not 
yet  accessible  to  the  foreign  student),  or  even  to  the 
t;riat  «)k-stores  of  the  Chinese  city,  and  he  will  learn 
at  a  glance  that  the  Hanlin  is.  not  a  mere  piece  of  Oriental 
pageantry.  Let  him  ask  for  the  "  Book  of  Odes ; "  the 
saksiiian  hands  liini  an  Imperial  edition  in  twenty  vol- 
umes, with  notes  and  illustrations  by  the  doctors  of  the 
Hanlin.  If  he  inquire  for  the  "  Book  of  Rites,"  or  any 
of  tlie  thirteen  canonical  lx)oks,  the  work  is  shown  him 
in  the  same  elegant  type,  equally  voluminous  in  extent, 
and  executed  by  the  hands  of  the  same  inexhaustible 
editors.  Then  there  are  histories  without  number;  next 
to  tlie  classics  in  dignity,  and  far  exceeding  them  in 
extent. 

In  addition  to  work  of  this  kind,  which  is  constant  as 
flu-  stream  of  time,  the  llanlin  supplies  writers  and  editors 
for  all  the  literary  enterprises  of  the  Emperor.   Some  of 


THE  IMPERIAL  ACADEMY  351 


these  arc  so  vast  that  it  is  safe  to  say  no  jKopIo  would 
undertake  thcin  but  those  who  cnrtctl  the  t.rcat  Wall 
anr|  cxoavattil  tlio  'iraticl  Canal;  tmr  woiihl  China  liavi" 
had  the  couraK"-'  to  '  icc  them  hail  slif  not  kept  0:1  fot)t 
as  a  permanent  institution  a  standing;  army  of  learned 
writers. 

Two  of  thiM'  colossal  cnterprisis  (hstui^juisli  tiic  bril- 
liant prime  of  the  present  <lynasty ;  while  a  third,  of  pro- 
jinriinns  vlill  nmrc  hui^c.  ilatis  l'acl<  tn  tlu-  sconnd  rcij.^ 
of  the  Mings.  This  last  is  the  Vung  Lo  la  Tien,  a  c)clo- 
p^edic  digest  of  the  Imperial  library,  which  at  that  time 
contain  d  jcxi.ooo  voUuiies.  Tliere  were  emplnyeil  in  the 
task  2\in\  clerks  and  copyists,  under  the  direction  of  a 
conimissidn  consisting  of  three  presidents,  five  vice-presi- 
dents, an<i  twenty  sub-directors.  The  work,  when  com- 
pleted, contained  22.037  hiKjks,  nr  abmit  half  that  numl)cr 
of  volumes.  It  was  never  printed  as  a  whole,  and  two 
of  the  three  manuscript  copies,  together  with  about  a 
I  'nth  part  of  the  third,  were  destroyed  by  fire  in  the  con- 
vulsions that  attended  the  overtiirow  of  the  Mings.* 

In  the  reign  of  K'ang  Hsi  (latter  part  of  the  seven- 
teenth centur\ )  a  similar  compilation  was  executed,  ntmi- 
bcring  C\k)o  volumes  and  beautifully  printed  on  movable 
copper  types,  with  the  title  of  T'u  Shu  Chi  Ch'eng. 

About  a  century  later,  under  Ch'ien  I.'  ng.  a  still  larger 
collection,  intended  to  supplement  the  former,  and  pre- 
serve all  that  was  most  valuable  in  the  extant  literature, 
was  j)rintcd  on  movable  wmxlcn  types  with  the  title  of 
Sec  K'u  Cli'iian  Sim.  These  two  collections  reproduce  a 
great  part  of  the  preceding ;  nevertheless  great  pains  have 
been  taken  to  copy  out  and  preserve  the  original  work. 
A  commission  of  members  of  the  Hanlin  was  appointed 

»  This  tliird  copy  was  almost  toUlljr  destroyed  with  the  rest  of 
the  library,  June,  1900. 


35a  THE  LORt  OK  CA  I  HAY- 

for  this  i)iiriinsf  hy  Ciricii  l.ntis.  atbl  a  '  'M))-  "f  ilu'  work, 
it  is  said,  now  I'ornis  a  part  of  llic  1  laiiliii  lil.rar> .  in  this 
connection  we  inay  mention  two  other  great  works  exe- 
cuted under  tiK'  MitiK>.  ulii^'i  liavf  Ihui  i  iinulnad  by 
the  present  dynasty  in  an  abridged  or  inuditicd  form. 
While  the  codification  of  the  taws  found  in  Yung  Lo  a 
Chinese  JiiMiiiiaii.  it  found  its  ■rrilinnian>  anlnll^r  tlu'  doc- 
tors nf  ilif  \cadiiiiv.  The  ••  Encyclopicdia  of  I'hiloso- 
pliy.  "  comi.ilcd  l.y  ilic  Hanhn  under  Yunp:  Lo,  the  second 
of  the  Mings,  was  abridged  by  tlie  lianlm.  under  K'ang 
Ilsi,  the  sir  :tid  ..t  tlu-  (  iriiii^'s.  A  still  more  important 
labor  of  the  1  laidiii.  perfunued  by  order  of  the  last- 
named  illustrious  ruler,  was  the  dictionary  which  bears  his 
name— a  lalxir  more  in  keeping  with  its  character  as  a 
literary  corporation. 

Thiers  speaks  of  the  French  Academy  as  having  la 
wissioH  i)  it':Ji-r  la  iiutrclic  dc  la  laii^^uc.  It  did  this  by 
pul.lisliiiig  its  famous  dictionary  ;  and  about  the  same  time 
the  meml)ers  of  the  Hanlin  were  performing  a  similar 
task  for  the  lanpuape  of  C  hina,  by  i)rcparation  of  the  jrreat 
dictionary  of  K'ang  H si— a .  work  which  stands  much 
higher  as  an  authority  than  does  the  Diciionnaire  de  I' 
Acadcmie  Francaise.  A  small  work,  not  unworthy  of 
mention  in  connection  with  these  grave  labors,  is  the 
Sacred  Edict,  which  goes  under  the  name  of  K'ang  Hsi. 
It  is  not,  however,  the  composition  of  either  K  ant;  Hsi  or 
Yung  flung,  but  purely  a  production  of  Hanlin  pencils. 
In  the  Memoirs  of  the  Academy  we  find  a  decree  assign- 
ing the  task  and  prescribing  the  mode  of  performance : 

"'Taking,'  says  llie  r.niperor.  'the  sixteen  edicts  (or 
maxims  of  seven  words  each)  of  our  .sacred  ancestor  sur- 
namcd  the  Benevolent  for  a  basis,  we  desire  to  expand 
and  illustrate  their  nuanin':,  for  the  in-^truction  of  our 
soldiers  and  people.    Let  the  members  of  the  Hanlin 


THL  IMPKRIAI,  A  ADKMY 


compose  an  essay,  of  l)otwtcn  live  and  six  liundrcd  char- 
acter.v,  on  each  text,  in  a  plain  and  lucid  style,  shunning; 
alike  the  errors  of  excessive  polish  and  rusticity.  Let 

the  sanu-  In'  ^\\v\\  in  ci^'In  or  'litu-  lu  rsuns,  cacli  of 
whom  will  priijari'  a  discourse,  and  hand  it  in  in  a 
sealed  envelope.' " 

I'Viiiti  ll  -  il  .•ippcarN  that  llic  sixti'cn  clfj^ant  ilisronr'^cs 
winch  c  'p'se  the  body  of  that  work  are  selections 
from  over  a  hundred — the  picked  performances  of  picked 
men. 

in  the  early  part  t)f  the  Manchu  dynasty,  the  Manlin 
were  much  en;.,i<;i'd  in  superintending  the  translation  of 
Chinese  works  i;ito  Manchu,  a  language  now  so  little 
under.itood  by  the  Tartars  of  iVkiiii^  that  those  volumi- 
nous versions  have  almost  ceased  i"  he  of  any  practical 
value.  Under  the  present  reign  the  It  arned  doctors  Inve 
been  working  snnieuhat  in  a  difTercnt  direction,  sliowu'g 
that  the  Chinese  arc  not  so  incapable  of  innovation  as  is 
usually  supposed.  A  minority  reign  naturally  suggested 
tile  w.'iiit  rif  a  royal  road  to  the  acquisition  of  knowledge; 
our  lianlin  doctors  were  accordingly  directe<l  to  supply 
his  Majesty  with  copies  of  History  made  eo  and  the 
t  !as>ics  made  easy.    The  mode  of  makinc^  was  a 

careful  rendering  into  the  Mandarin  c  r  court  inalect — a 
style  which  these  admirable  doctors  dirdain  as  much  as 
the  itiediaeval  scholars  (,f  ^"ropc  dii'  '  vtiiiacular  of 
their  day.  May  we  not  ho.  lat  tlust  ■  i>rks,  after  edu- 
cating thr  Emi)eror,  will.  liKe  those  prepared  by  the 
Jesuits  (for  the  Dauphin),  be  brought  to  the  li^t  for 
the  instruction  of  his  ]H'0])le? 

As  it  is  intended  here  to  indicate  the  variety  rather 
than  the  extent  of  the  literary  labors  of  the  Hanlin.  these 
remarks  would  bo  incomplete  if  they  did  not  refer  to  their 
poetry.   They  are  all  poets ;  each  a  laureate,  devoting  his 


354 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


■i 


talents  to  the  glorification  of  his  Imperial  patron.  Swift 
said  of  an  English  laureate, 

"Young  must  torture  his  invention 
To  flatter  knaves,  or  lose  a  pension." 

In  China  the  office  is  not  held  on  such  a  condition. 
Sage  emperors  have  heen  known  to  strike  out  with  their 
own  pen  tlie  finest  compliments  offered  them  by  their 
official  banls.  I  li'len  l.uu.t;.  as  we  have  seen.  fcU  it 
necessary  to  warn  the  Uanlin  against  the  prevailing  vice 
of  poets  and  pensioners.  In  China  poetry  is  put  to  a 
better  purpose;  Imperial  decrees  and  official  proclama- 
tions arc  often  expressed  in  verse,  for  the  same  reason 
that  iniluced  Solon  to  borrow  the  at'l  of  verse  in  the  pro- 
mulgation of  his  laws.  Didactic  coin,)ositioiis  in  verse  arc 
without  number,  and  fo-  the  most  part  as  dry  as 
Homer's  catalogue  of  the  fleet.  A  popular  cyclopaedia 
for  instance,  in  over  a  score  of  volumes,  treats  of  all 
imaginable  subjects  in  a  kind  of  irregular  verse  called  fu. 

Employed  as  scribes  and  editors,  it  would  be  too  much 
to  expect  that  the  Hanlin  should  distinguish  themselves 
for  originality.  It  i>  a  rare  thing  for  an  original  work 
to  spring  from  the  brain  of  an  Academician.  In  imita- 
tion of  Confucius,  they  might  inscribe  over  their  door, 
"  We  edit,  but  we  do  not  compose." 

"On  entering  this  hall,"  said  M.  Thiers,  on  taking  his 
seat  in  the  l'>ench  Academy,  "  I  feel  the  proudest  recollec- 
tions of  our  national  history  awakening  within  me.  Here 
it  i-  tliat  Corneillc,  r.ossuet.  Voltaire,  and  Montesquieu, 
one  after  another,  came  and  took  their  seats;  and  here 
more  recently  have  sa!t  Laplace  and  Cuvier.  .  .  . 
Three  great  men,  Laplace.  LnLrrange.  and  Cuvier,  opened 
the  century ;  a  numerous  band  of  young  and  ardent  intel- 


vn 


THE  IMPERIAL  ACADEMY 


Ucts  have  followed  in  their  wake.  Some  study  the  prime- 
val history  of  our  planet,  thereby  to  illustrate  the  history 
of  its  inhabitants ;  others,  inipilkd  hy  the  love  of  hu- 
manity, strive  to  subjugate  the  elements  in  order  to 
ameliorate  the  condition  of  man;  still  others  study  all 
ages  and  traverse  all  countries,  in  hopes  of  adding 
scjMK'lliing  to  the  treasures  of  intellectual  and  moral 
philosophy.  .  .  .  Standing  in  the  midst  of  you,  the 
faithful  and  constant  friends  of  science,  permit  me  to 
exclaim,  liappy  are  those  that  take  part  in  the  noble  labors 
of  this  age !  " 

In  this  passage  we  have  a  true  portraiture  of  the  spirit 

that  animates  the  (^ccnv^c  of  the  Wcstirn  intellect;  they 
lead  the  age  in  every  path  of  improvement,  and  include  in 
their  number  those  whom  a  viceroy  of  Egypt  felicitously 
described,  not  as  peers,  but  as  les  letes  cuuronuces  de  la 
science.  liovv  ditYerent  from  the  drowsy  routine  which 
prevails  in  the  chief  tribunal  of  Chinese  learning.  Of  all 
this  the  Chinese  Academician  has  no  conception;  he  is 
an  anachronism,  his  country  is  an  anachronism,  as  far  in 
the  rear  of  the  world's  great  march  as  were  the  people 
of  a  secltuk'd  valley,  mentioned  in  Chinese  literature,  who, 
finding  tliere  an  asylum  from  trouble  and  danger,  declined 
intercourse  with  the  rest  of  mankind,  and  after  the  lapse 
of  many  centuries  imagined  that  the  dynasty  of  Han  was 
still  upon  the  throne. 

It  is  doing  our  ilanlin  a  species  of  injustice  to  compare 
him  with  the  Academicians,  or  even  with  the  commonalty 
of  the  West,  in  a  scientific  point  of  view;  for  .science  is 
Just  the  thing  vhich  he  does  not  profess,  and  tint  gen- 
eral information  which  is  regarded  as  indispensable  by 
the  average  intelligence  of  Christendom  is  to  the  Ilanlin 
a  foreign  currency,  which  has  no  recognized  value  in  the 
market  of  his  country ;  nevertheless,  we  shall  proceed  to 


356  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

intcrrnj^atc  Iiim  as  to  liis  infunnation  on  a  few  points, 
nRTcly  for  the  sake  of  l)rinynifi  lo  view  the  actual  con- 
dition of  the  educated  niiiul  of  C  liina. 

In  historv  lie  can  recite  with  familiar  ease  the  dynastic 
records  of  his  own  country  for  thousands  of  years;  but 
he  never  heard  of  Alexander  or  Ciesar  or  the  first 
Napoleon.  Of  the  third  XajMileiMi  he  may  have  loarneil 
something  from  a  faint  echo  of  the  catastrophe  at  Sedan, 
certainly  not  from  the  missions  of  Burlingame  or  Ch'ung 
Ilao — events  that  arc  as  yet  too  ncvui  to  have  reached 
the  ears  of  these  students  of  anlKputy,  who,  whatever 
their  faults,  are  not  chargeable  with  being  rcrum  novarum 
aridi. 

In  treoirraphv  he  is  imt  at  home  even  among  the  prov- 
inces of  China  i)r(iper.  and  liecomes  (piite  bewildered  when 
he  goes  to  the  north  of  the  (inat  W  all.  Of  Columbus 
and  the  Xew  World  he  is  i)r()fovind!y  i.q-nnrant,  not  know- 
in,;:  in  what  part  of  the  globe  lies  the  America  of  which 
he  may  have  heard  as  one  among  the  Treaty  Powers. 
With  the  names  of  Knglaiid  and  I'rance  he  is  better 
acquainted,  as  they  have  left  their  record  in  open  ports 
and  ruined  palaces.  Russia  he  thinks  of  as  a  semi-bar- 
barous state,  scmewhere  amoni:  the  Mungolian  tribes, 
which  formerlv  hruught  tribute,  and  was  vantiuislied  in 
contlict  lu  r  people  being  led  in  triumph  by  the  prowess 
of  K'ang  Hsi.* 

In  astronnmv  he  maintains  the  dignity  of  our  native 
globe  as  the  centre  of  the  universe,  as  his  own  country  is 
the  middle  of  the  habitable  earth— a  conviction  in  which 
he  is  coiitiniu  d  by  the  authority  of  those  learned  Jesuits 
who  persisted  in  teaching  the  Ptolemaic  system  three 
centuries  after  the  time  of  Copernicus.    Of  longitude 

♦  The  Sil  crian  Rarrison  nf  Alba^in  were  brought  to  Peking, 
where  their  descendants  still  reside. 


THE  IMPERIAL  ACADEMY  357 


and  latitude  he  has  no  conception;  and  refuses  even  to 
admit  the  splicrical  form  of  tlio  lartli,  because  an  ancient 
tradition  asserts  that  "  h.eaven  is  round  antl  tlie  earth 
square."  To  htm  the  stars  are  shining  characters  on  the 
biK>k  of  fate,  and  ecUpses  portents  of  appfoaching  calam- 
ity. 

Ir  /oology  lie  believes  that  tigers  plunging  into  the  sea 
arc  transformed  into  sharks,  and  that  sparrows  by  under- 
goiui,'  the  ^anie  Iiaptisni  are  convert''!!  into  fivsters  ;  for  the 
latter  metamorphosis  is  gravely  asserted  in  canonical 
books,  and  the  former  is  a  popular  notion  which  he  cares 
not  to  (juestinn.  .\ritlinietic  be  scorns  as  belonging  to 
shoi)kcepers ;  and  mechanics  lie  disdains  on  account  of 
its  relation  to  machinery  and  implied  connection  with 
handicraft. 

Of  general  physics  be  nevertheless  holds  an  ill-defined 
theory,  which  has  for  its  basis  the  dual  forces  that  gen- 
erated the  universe,  and  the  five  tUnuiU^  uliicli  iirofc'^s 
to  comiireliend  the  components  of  all  material  forms,  but 
omit  the  atmosphere.  Of  the  nature  of  these  elements 
his  text-book  gives  the  following  luminous  exposition : 
namely,  that  '  the  nature  of  water  is  to  run  downward; 
the  nature  of  tire  is  to  tlanie  upward ;  the  nature  of  wood 
is  to  be  either  crooked  or  straight ;  the  nature  of  metals 
is  to  be  pliable,  ami  subject  to  change;  the  nature  of 
earth  is  to  serve  the  purpo.scs  of  agriculture."  * 

So  weighty  is  the  information  contained  in  these  sen- 
tences that  he  acce])ts  them  as  a  special  revelation,  the 
bed-rock  of  hmiian  kn(jwledge,  beneath  which  it  would 
be  useless,  if  not  profane,  to  attcinpt  to  penetrate.  It 
never  occurs  to  ,,m-  pliilov, ,]»hcr  to  inquire  Ti'//y  water 
flows  ilnwnwanl.  and  .\7/_v  lire  ascends;  to  his  mind  both 
are  iiliiniai.  facts.    On  this  foundation  human  sagacity 

»  From  tliL-  lluii^i  i'ilii  ui  the  Sliu  Ching. 


358  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


has  erected  the  pantheon  of  universal  science.  This  it 
has  done  by  connecting  tlie  five  eletnents  with  the  five 
planets,  tlie  five  senses,  the  five  musical  tones,  the  five 
colors,  and  the  five  ^rcat  mountain  ranges  of  the  earth ; 
the  quintal  classification  originatins::  in  the  remarkable 
observation  that  man  has  fi\e  finj^ers  on  his  hand,  and 
setting  forth  the  harmony  of  nature  as  a  connected  whole 
with  a  beautiful  simplicity  that  one  seeks  for  in  vain  in 
the  Kosinos  n{  Humboldt. 

This  system,  which  our  Ilanlin  accepts,  though  he  does 
not  claim  the  merit  of  having  originated  it,  is  not  a  tnere 
fanciful  speculation;  it  is  a  practical  doctrine  skilfully 
adapted  to  the  uses  of  human  life,  in  medicine  it  enables 
him  to  adapt  his  remedies  to  the  nature  of  the  disease. 
When  he  lias  contracted  a  fever  on  sliipl)oard  or  in  a 
dwelling  tliat  has  a  wooden  floor,  he  perceives  at  once  the 
origin  of  his  malady,  or  his  physician  informs  him  that 
"  wood  produces  fire ;  "  earth  is  wanted  to  restore  the 
balance,  i.  e.  li  ' .  on  Oinrc,  or  outdoor  exercise. 

In  the  conduct  of  afTairs  it  enables  him  to  get  the  lucky 
stars  in  his  favor,  and.  through  the  learned  labors  of  the 
Board  of  Astronomy,  it  places  in  bis  bands  a  guide-book 
which  informs  him  when  he  should  commence  or  termi- 
nate an  enterprise,  when  he  may  safely  venture  abroad, 
and  when  it  would  be  prudent  to  remain  at  home.  Tt  en- 
ables him  to  calculate  futurity,  and  obtain  the  advantages 
of  a  kind  of  scicntia  media,  or  conditional  foreknowledge; 
to  know  bow  to  arrantre  a  marriat^e  so  as  to  secure  felicity 
according  to  the  horoscope  of  the  parties ;  and  ascertain 
where  to  locate  the  dwellings  of  the  living  or  the  resting- 
places  of  the  dead,  in  order  to  insure  to  their  families  the 
largest  amount  of  prosperity. 

These  occult  sciences  the  Hanlin  believes  implicitly, 
but  he  does  not  profess  to  understand  them — contented 


THE  IMPERIAL  ACADEMY 


in  such  matters  to  be  guided  by  the  opinion  of  profes- 
sional i-'xijiTts.  A  Sadduc!.!'  in  creed  and  an  epicure  in 
practice,  the  comiurts  of  the  present  life  constitute  his 
highest  idea  of  happiness;  yet  he  never  thi.  ks  of  devising 
any  new  cxiKdient  fur  promoting  the  phy.si^  uell-lh  ing 
of  his  people.  Like  some  of  the  philosopiiers  of  our 
Western  antiquity,  he  would  feel  degraded  by  occupa- 
tion with  anytliing  lower  tlian  politics  and  ethics,  or  less 
refined  than  poetry  and  rhetoric.  "  Seneca,"  says  Lord 
Macaulay,  "  labors  to  clear  Democritus  from  the  dis- 
graceful imputation  of  having  made  the  first  arch;  and 
Anacharsis  from  the  Jiarge  of  having  contrived  the  pot- 
ter's wheel."  No  such  apologist  is  required  for  our  doc- 
tors of  the  Hanlin,  inasmuch  as  no  such  impropriety  was 
ever  laid  to  their  charge. 

The  noble  motto  of  the  French  Institute,  Invcnit  et  per 
fecit,  is  utterly  alien  from  the  spirit  and  aims  of  the 
Academicians  of  China.   With  them  the  Golden  Age  is  in 
the  remote  past;  everything  for  ihe  good  of  human 
society  has  been  anticipated  by  the  wisdom  of  the  ancients. 

"  Omnia  jam  forme  mortalibus  esse  parata." 

Nothing  remains  for  them  to  do  but  to  wa'k  in  the  foot- 
steps of  their  remote  ancestors. 

Having  thus  subjected  our  Academ^'-ian  to  an  exami- 
nation in  the  elements  of  a  modem  education,  we  must 
again  caution  our  readers  again  takir./  its  result  as  a 
gauge  of  mental  power  or  actual  culture.  In  knowledge, 
according  to  our  standard,  he  is  a  child;  in  intellectual 
force,  a  giant.  .\  veteran  athlete,  the  victor  of  r.  himdred 
conflicts,  his  memory  is  prodigious,  his  apprehension 
quick,  and  his  taste  in  literary  matters  exquisite. 

"  It  is  a  dangerous  error,"  says  an  erudite  editor  of 


36o  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

Sir  W.  HatTiiltnn,  "  to  regard  the  cultivation  of  our  fac- 
ulties as  sulioidinatL-  to  the  aainisiticii  uf  knowU'dfje.  m- 
stiad  of  kmnvledge  heing  suliortliuatc  to  th.e  cultivation 
of  our  faculties.  In  consequence  of  this  error,  those  sci- 
ences which  afford  a  greater  numher  of  more  certain  facts 
have  hceii  lUrnu-d  siiiu  rior  in  utility  to  those  which  be- 
stow a  higher  cultivation  on  the  higher  faculties  of  the 
mind." 

The  peculiar  di^cijiline  umU  r  which  the  llanhn  is  edu- 
cated, with  its  advantages  and  defects,  we  shall  indicate 
in  another  place.  Before  quitting  this  branch  of  the  sub- 
ject, we  niav  rctuark,  iKnvcvcr,  that  it-^  result  as  wit- 
nessed in  the  llanlin  is  not,  as  generally  supposed,  a 
feeble,  superficial  polish  which  unfits  its  recipient  for  the 
duties"  of  jiractical  life;  on  the  contrary,  inenibership  iii 
the  llanlin  is  avowedly  a  prei)aiation  for  the  discharge  ul 
political  functions,  a  stepping-stone  to  the  highest  offices 
in  the  State.  The  .Academician  is  not  restricted  to  func- 
tions that  partake  of  a  literary  character;  he  may  be  a 
viceroy  as  well  as  .i  provincial  examiner;  a  diplomatic 
minister  as  well  as  a  rhymester  of  the  court. 

In  glancing  over  the  long  catalogue  of  the  Academic 
Legion  of  Honor,  one  is  struck  by  the  large  proportion  of 
names  that  have  become  eminent  in  the  history  of  their 
ciitinir\'. 

\\\-  liave  had  occasion  more  than  once  in  the  preceding 
pages  to  refer  to  the  Memoirs  of  the  Academy.  These 
records,  unfortunate'y.  extend  back  no  further  than  the 
accession  of  the  present  dynasty,  in  1(144;  and  they  termi- 
nate with  iRm.  comprising  only  a  little  more  than  one  and 
a  half  of  ihv  twelve  conitiries  of  the  society's  existence. 
Publi^ied  mider  Iiuperi.-^Ll  auspices  in  thirty-two  thin  vol- 
umes, they  are  so  divided  that  the  books  or  sections 
amount  to' the  cabalistic  number  sixty-four,  the  square  of 


THE  IMPERIAL  ACADEMY  361 


the  number  of  the  original  diagrams  which  form  th* 

basis  of  tho  /  Cliiii.^,  the  national  Book  of  Divination. 

The  first  thing  that  strikes  us  on  opening  the  pages 
of  that  work  is  the  spirit  of  imperialism  with  which  they 
appear  to  hv  saturated.  The  transactions  of  his  Majesty 
constitute  the  chief  subject ;  the  performances  of  the  mem- 
bers are  mentioned  only  incidentally  ;  and  the  whole  asso- 
ciation is  exhibited  in  the  character  of  an  elaborate  sys- 
tem of  belts  and  satellites  purposely  adjusted  to  reflect 
t!ie  splendor  of  a  central  luminary.  Cast  you.'  eye  over 
the  table  of  contents  and  see  with  what  relief  this  idea 
stands  out  as  a  controlling  principle  in  the  arrangement 
of  the  work. 

The  first  two  books  are  devoted  to  what  are  called 

Shciii^  Holy  Edicts,  i.  e.  expressions  of  the  Imperial 
mind  in  regard  to  the  affairs  of  the  society  in  any  man- 
ner, however  informal.  Six  books  are  given  to  T'ien 
Chang,  or  Celestial  Rhetoric,  i.  j.  productions  .if  the  ver- 
milion pencil  in  prose  and  verse.  Eight  books  record 
the  imposing  ceremonies  connected  with  Imperial  visits 
to  the  halls  of  tlie  Academy ;  six  booki  commemorate  the 
marks  of  Imperial  favor  bestowed  on  members  of  the 
Academy;  sixteen  of  the  remaining  forty-two  are  occu- 
pied with  a  catalc^e  of  those  members  ^  'lo  have  been 
honored  with  appointments  to  serve  in  the  Tmperial  pres- 
ence, or  with  special  commissions  of  other  kinds.  In  the 
residuary  twenty-six  we  should  expect  to  find  specimens 
of  the  proper  work  of  the  Academy,  and  so  we  du;  for 
no  less  than  three  books  are  taken  up  with  ceremonial 
tactics;  forms  to  be  observed  in  attendance  on  the  Em- 
peror on  sundry  occasions,  the  etiquette  of  official  inter- 
course, etc. ;  these  things  occupying  a  place  among  the 
serious  business  of  the  society.  Fourteen  are  filled  with 
specimens  of  prose  and  verse  from  the  pens  of  leading 


362  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

members,  and  one  is  assigned  to  a  high-flown  description 
of  the  magnificence  of  tho  acaiK  nutal  ImiMitit^'s  ,  tlu'  rest 
contain  a  mcaprf  catalogue  of  official  ciuployiueiits  and 
litcran-  labors. 

What  a  picture  ilocs  tliis  present— a  picture  drawn  by 
themselves— of  the  hi^'best  literary  cori)oration  in  the 
Empire!    Yet.  notwitlistandint;  the  enormous,  toadyism 
with  which  they  are  inflated,  we  do  not  hesitate  to  say  that 
the  twentv  two  hooks  espeeially  devoted  to  the  Emperors 
are  by  far  tlie  most  readable  antl  instructive  portion  of 
the  Memoirs.  They  throw  light  on  the  personal  character 
of  these  monarchs.  exhibit  the  iiaiure  of  tlielr  intercourse 
with  their  subjects,  and  illustrate  the  estimation  in  which 
polite  letters  are  held  in  the  view  of  the  government. 
The  first  chapter  ojuns  with  the  followintr: 
"  Slum  Chi,  the  founder  of  the  Imperial  family,  in  the 
tenth  year  of  his  reign,  visited  the  Inner  Hall  of  the  Acad- 
emy, for  the  purpose  of  inspecting  the  translation  of  the 
Five  Classics.    On  this  occasion,  his  Majesty  said,  '  The 
virtues  of  Heaven  and  the  true  method  of  government 
are  all  recorded  in  the  Book  of  History ;  its  principles  will 
remain  unalterable  for  ten  thousand  generations.'  " 

The  translation  referred  to  was  into  the  Manchu  lan- 
guage ;  it  was  made  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  the  con- 
quering race  the  more  speedily  to  acquire  the  civilization 
of  the  conquered. 

The  young  sovereign,  then  only  sixteen  years  of  age, 
shows  by  this  brief  speech  how  thoroughly  he  had  become 
imbued  with  the  spirit  of  the  Confucian  books.  The 
record  proceeds : 

"  In  the  fifth  moon  of  the  same  year,  his  Majesty  again 
visiting  the  Inner  Hall,  incjuired  of  the  directors  why  the 
writers  had  ceased  from  their  work  so  eariy.   The  Oian- 


THE  IMPERIAL  ACADEMY  363 


cellor  Fan  replied,  'This  is  the  summer  solstice;  we 
suspend  our  labors  a  little  earlier  un  tliat  account.' 

"  The  Emperor,  looking  round  on  his  attendant  officers, 
said,  '  To  take  advantage  of  some  peculiarity  of  the 
season  to  nnake  a  holiday  is  natural;  but  if  you  wish  to 
enjny  rejx'sc,  you  must  first  learn  to  laiior;  you  must  aid 
in  settling  the  Empire  on  a  secure  basis,  and  then  your 
days  of  rest  will  not  be  disturbed.  If  you  aim  only  at 
plt  asure  witliont  restrainin;:^  your  desires,  placing  self  and 
family  first  and  the  Empire  second,  your  pleasure  will  be 
of  short  duration.  Behold,  for  example,  our  course  of 
cim  luct,  how  (lilifjent  we  are  in  business,  how  anxiously 
we  strive  to  attain  perfection.  It  is  for  this  reason  we 
take  pleasure  in  hearing  the  discourses  of  these  learned 
nun ;  men  of  the  present  day  are  good  at  talking,  but 
they  are  not  o  good  at  acting.  Why  so?  Because  they 
have  no  settleil  principles;  they  act  one  way  to-day  and 
another  to-morrov .  But  who  among  mortals  is  free 
from  faults?  If  one  correct  his  faults  when  he  knows 
them,  he  is  a  good  man ;  if,  on  the  contrary,  he  conceal 
his  faults  and  present  the  deceptive  aspect  of  virtue,  his 
errors  multiply  and  his  guilt  becomes  heavier.  If  :^r,  and 
you,  our  servants  are  diligent  in  managing  the  affairs  of 
state,  so  that  the  benefit  shall  reach  the  people.  Heaven 
will  certainly  vouchsafe  its  protection ;  while  on  those 
who  do  evd  without  inward  examination  or  outward  re- 
form, Heaven  will  send  down  calamity.  ...  If  your 
actions  were  virtuous,  would  I  leaven  afflict  you  ?  Ch'eng 
T'ang  was  a  virtuous  ruler,  yet  he  did  not  spare  pains 
in  correcting  his  faults;  on  the  contrary,  Cheng  Te,  of 
the  Ming  dynasty,  had  his  heart  set  on  enjoyment,  and 
chnig  to  his  own  vices,  while  he  was  perpf':nal!y  finding 
fault  with  the  shortcomings  of  his  ministers.  When 


364  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


the  prince  himself  refuses  to  reform,  the  reformation  of 
his  people  will  be  impossible,  however  virtuous  his  officers 

may  l)e.' " 

This  little  sermon,  excepting  the  preceding  brief 
encomium  on  the  sacred  books,  is  all  that  the  Academy 
lias  tlioii^'lit  fit  to  preserve  of  tlie  discourses  of  Slum  Clii. 
His  son,  the  illustrious  K'ang  Hsi,  fills  a  large  space  in  the 
Memoirs.  Here  are  a  few  extracts,  by  way  of  specimens : 

"  Tile  Emperor  K'ang  Hsi,  in  llie  nititli  year  of  his  reign 
(the  fifteenth  of  his  age),  said  to  the  ofhcers  of  the  Board 
of  Rites,  '  H  one  would  Icam  the  art  of  government,  he 
must  explore  the  classic  learning  of  the  ancients.  When- 
ever we  can  find  a  day  of  leisure  from  affairs  of  state, 
we  spend  it  in  the  study  of  the  classics.  Reflecting  that 
what  is  called  Classic  Feast  and  Daily  Exjjosition  are 
important  usages,  which  ought  to  he  revived,  you  are  re- 
quired to  examine  and  report  on  the  necessary 
regulations.' " 

In  his  twelfth  year,  his  Majesty  saiil  to  the  Academician 
Fu  Ta  Li,  "  To  cherish  an  uKiuiring  mind  is  the  secret  of 
progress  in  learning.  If  a  lesson  be  regarded  as  an  empty 
form,  and  when  finished,  he  dismissed  from  the  thoughts, 
what  benefit  can  there  to  heart  or  life?  As  for  us, 
when  our  servants  (the  Hanlin)  are  through  with  their 
discourses,  w  always  reflect  deeply  on  the  subject- 
matter,  and  talk  ovci  with  others  any  new  ideas  we  may 
have  ol  tained;  our  single  aim  being  a  luminous  per- 
ception of  the  truth.  The  intervals  of  business,  whether 
tlic  weather  be  hot  or  cold,  we  occupy  in  reading  and 
writing." 

So  saying,  his  Majesty  exhibited  a  specimen  of  his 
penmanship,  remarking  that  calligraphy  was  not  the 
study  of  a  prince,  but  that  he  found  amusement  in  it. 

In  the  ninth  moon  of  the  same  year,  his  Majesty  said 


THE  IMPERIAL  ACADEMY  365 


to  Hsianf;  Tze  Lii,  "  The  precept  in  the  7a  iisiwh, 
on  the  study  of  things,  is  very  c(»r.prehensive ;  it  is  not 
Ik-  liinitcd  to  mathematical  inquiries  and  mechanical 

contrivances." 
Again  he  said,  "  Heaven  and  earth,  past  and  present, 

arc  governed  liy  otu-  law.  Our  aitii  slioiild  be  to  Rive  our 
learning  the  widest  possible  range,  and  to  condense  it 
into  the  smallest  possible  compass." 

In  the  fourteenth  year,  his  Majesty,  on  reading  a  paper 
of  the  Hanlin,  and  finding  himself  compared  to  tlie 
Three  Kings  and  Two  Emperors  (of  ancient  times), 
condemned  the  exj)ression  as  a  piece  of  empty  flattery, 
and  ordered  it  to  he  clianged. 

In  the  sixteenth  year,  his  Majesty  said,  "  Learning 
must  be  reduced  to  practice  in  order  to  be  beneficial. 
You  are  rcfpiired  to  acMress  me  with  more  frankness,  con- 
cealing nothing,  in  order  to  aid  me  in  carrying  into  ,  rac- 
tice  the  principles  to  which  I  have  attended." 

In  the  nineteentli  year,  the  r.iiiperor,  in  bestowing  on 
members  of  the  Hanlin,  specimens  of  his  autograph,  re- 
marked that  in  ancient  times  sovereign  and  subject  were 
at  liberty  to  criticise  each  other,  and  lie  (Iesire(i  tiiem  to 
exercise  that  liberty  in  regard  to  his  handwriting,  which 
he  did  not  consider  as  a  model. 

In  the  twenty-first  year,  in  criticising  certain  specimens 
of  ancient  chirography,  his  Majesty  pointed  to  one  from 
the  pen  of  Lu  Kung,  remarking,  "  In  the  firmness  and 
severity  of  these  strokes  I  perceive  the  heroic  spirit  with 
which  the  writer  battled  with  misfortune." 

In  the  twenty-second  year,  his  Majesty  ordered  that 
the  topics  chosen  for  the  letters  of  the  Classic  Feast 
should  not.  as  bitlu  rto,  Iw  selected  solely  witli  r-  fi  rence 
to  the  sovereign,  but  that  they  should  be  adapted  to  in- 
struct and  stimulate  the  officers  as  well. 


366  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


In  tlic  twenty-third  year,  Itis  Majesty  was  on  a  journey, 
when,  the  boat  nKwrtng  for  tin-  ni^lit,  he  continual  read- 
in);  until  tlu'  third  watrli  lli^  il'  tk— a  iiuintKT  uf  the 
llanhii— liail  to  beg  liis  Maji-l.,  u>  alluvv  liim>cU  a  httle 
more  time  for  reptwe;  whereupon  his  Majesty  gave  a 
detaiK'<l  accuuni  nf  lils  lialiii-  ..i  study,  all  the  particulars 
of  which  are  here  faithtiiUy  i)rescrved. 

In  the  forty-third  year,  his  Majesty  said  to  the  High 
C"iiaiiccili>r  and  nuuiliirs  of  tin-  Acau-'my,  "  I'mni  early 
ycnuli  I  iiave  betn  fund  uf  the  ink-stone  ;  every  day  writ- 
ing a  tliciisand  characters,  and  copying  with  care  the 
chirograpliy  of  the  famous  scribes  of  antiquity.  This 
praetue  I  have  kept  up  for  more  than  thirty  years,  be- 
cause it  was  the  henl  oi  my  nature,   in  the  Manchu  1  also 
acquired  such  facility  that  1  never  make  a  mistake.  The 
endorsements  oii  memorials  from  viceroys  and  governors, 
and  Imperial  placets,  are  all  w  ritten  with  my  own  hand, 
without  the  aid  of  a  preliminary  draft.   Things  of  any 
importance,  though  mouths  and  years  may  elapse.  I  never 
forget,  notwithstanding  the  endorsed  documents  are  on 
flic  in  the  respective  offices,  and  not  even  a  memorandum 
loft  ill   iiy  hands." 

In  the  fiftieth  year,  his  Majesty  said  to  the  High 
Chancellors, 

"  In  former  generations  I  observe  that,  on  occasion  of 
the  (  lassie  Feast,  the  sovereign  was  accustomed  to  listen 
in  respeeiful  silence,  without  uttering  a  word.  By  that 
means  his  ignorance  was  not  exposed,  though  he  might 
not  comprehend  a  word  of  tlie  discourse.  The  usage  was 
thus  a  mere  name  without  the  substance. 

"  As  for  mc.  I  have  now  reigned  fifty  years  and  spent 
all  my  leis-re  hours  in  dilic;cnt  study:  and  whenever 
the  draft  of  a  discourse  was  sent  in,  I  never  failed 


THE  IMPERIAL  ACADEMY  367 


to  read  it  over.  If  by  chance  a  word  or  sentence  appeared 

iloiilitfiil.  I  aKva\.s  (Ii.sciissc<I  it  witli  my  lilcrary  aids;  for 
till  Classic  i'ca.^t  is  an  inipurtant  iiistitutiun,  and  nut  by 
any  means  to  be  viewed  as  an  insignificant  ceremony. ' 

(Jf  N  unj,'  (  lii-ng,  the  son  ami  snci.i>?ii>r  of  K'ang  lisi, 
the  Mcnu-irs  liave  prcyervcd  but  a  single  discoiirM',  and  of 
that  only  ivs  opening  sentence  is  worth  (jiuning.  His 
Majesty  said  to  tlie  members  of  the  Hanlin,  "  Literature 
is  your  business,  but  we  want  such  literature  as  will  serve 
to  r^ulate  the  age  and  reflect  glory  on  the  nation.  As 
for  sonnets  to  the  moon  and  tho  clouds,  the  winds  and  the 
(lews — of  wliat  use  arc  tlu-y  " 

The  next  Emperor,  Cli  ien  Lung,  far  surpassed  his  pred- 
ecessors in  literary  taste  and  attainments;  and  his  reign 
bcinjj  Imi},'  (sixty  ytais),  his  loninumications  to  the 
Hanlin  are  more  than  proportionally  voluminous.  Space, 
however,  compels  us  to  make  our  extracts  in  the  inverse 
ratio.  Many  of  tlie  prcccilintj  and  sonic  wliicli  follow 
have  nothing  to  do  with  the  Academy,  save  that  they 
were  speeches  uttered  in  the  hearing  of  the  Hanlin,  and 
by  them  recorded.    This,  however,  is  lo  tlie  ;>oiiu. 

In  the  second  year  his  Majesty  said  tc  the  general 
directors,  "  Yesterday  we  examined  the  mem'  rs  of  the 
Academy,  giving  th''m  for  a  theme  the  sentence  'It  is 
hard  to  he  a  sovereign,  and  to  be  a  subject  is  not  easy.' 
Oi  course  there  is  a  difference  in  the  force  of  the  ex- 
pression '  hard  '  and  '  not  easy,'  yet  not  one  of  them  per- 
ceived the  distinction."  Here  follows  an  elaborate  expo- 
sition from  the  vermilion  pencil,  which  I  must  forego,  at 
the  risk  of  leaving  my  readers  in  perpetual  darkness  as  to 
the  momentous  distincti'>n.  It  is.  however,  but  just  to 
say  that  the  Emperor  intends  the  paper,  not  as  a  scholastic 
exercise,  but  as  a  political  lesson. 


368  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


In  tlic  fiftli  year,  his  Majesty  says  he  has  remarkeiJ 
that  the  addresses  of  the  Hanlin  contain  a  larpc  amount 
i)f  adulation,  and  a  very  small  amount  of  instruction. 
He  accordingly  recommends  them  to  modify  their  style. 
Two  years  later  he  complains  that  "the  Hanlin  often 
make  a  test  from  the  sacred  books  a  stalkinij-linrse  for 
irrelevant  matters ;  e.  g.  Chou  Chang  Fa,  in  lecturing  on 
the  Book  of  Rites,  took  occasion  to  laud  the  magnificence 
of  our  sacrifice  at  the  Altar  of  Heaven  as  without  a 
parallel  a  thousand  years."  "  Before  the  sacrifice,"  he 
says, 

"'Heaven  gave  a  good  omen  in  fall  of  snow,  and 
during  its  performance  the  sun  shone  down  propitiously.' 
Now  these  rites  were  not  of  my  institution  ;  moreover,  the 
soft  winds  and  gentle  sunshine  on  the  occasion  were 
purely  accidental  ;  for  at  that  very  time  flie  rrovincc  of 
Chiangnan  was  suffering  from  disastrous  floods  and  my 
mind  tormented  with  anxiety  on  that  account.  Let  Chow 
Cliantr  Fa.  he  severely  reprimanded,  and  let  the  other 
Hanlin  take  warning." 

.'Kmong  the  remaining  speeches  of  Ch'ien  Lung,  there 
are  three  that  do  him  credit  as  a  vindicator  of  the  truth 
of  history.  In  one  of  tlicm  he  rebukes  the  historiogra- 
phers for  describing  certain  descendants  of  the  Mings 
as  usurpers,  observing  that  they  came  honestly  by  their 
titles.  tIioui,di  they  were  not  able  to  maintain  them.  In 
another  he  criticises  the  ignorance  and  wilful  perversions 
of  facts  exhibited  by  Chinese  historians  in  their  account 
nf  tile  three  preceding  Tartar  dynasties — namely,  the 
Liao,  Ch"in,  and  Yuan.  And  in  the  last  he  reproves  his 
own  writers  of  history  for  omitting  the  name  of  a  meri- 
torious individual  who  bad  fallen  into  disi^rai  i'. 

.Among  the  conmumications  of  the  next  l-lmperor  Chia 
Clung  (the  Memoirs  close  with  the  fourth  year  of  his 


THE  IMPERIAL  ACADEMY  369 

reign),  I  find  notliin-  of  sufficient  interest  to  be  worth  the 
space  it  would  occupy. 

TJuis  far  the  Rinpcrnrs :  what  the  Ilanlin  say  to  them 
in  conversation  or  formal  discourse  is  not  recorded.  But 
we  know  that  they  are  so  siti.ated  as  to  exert  a  more 
direct  influence  on  the  mind  of  their  master  than  subjects 
of  any  other  class.  They  are  the  instructors  of  his  youth, 
and  the  counsellors  of  his  maturer  years;  and  this,  the 
fixinc:  of  the  views  and  moulding  of  the  character  of  the 
autocrat  of  the  Empire,  we  may  fairly  regard  as  their 
most  exalted  function. 

But  if  they  inllucnce  the  limperor,  we  see  in  the  pre- 
ceding paragraphs  how  easy  it  is  for  the  Emperor  to 
influence  the.ii.  Herein  is  our  hope  for  the  rehabdiution 
of  the  Academy.  Far  from  being  decayed  or  effete,  it 
contains  as  mai.y  and  as  active  minds  as  at  any  previous 
period.  At  present  they  spend  much  of  their  time  in 
making  "sonnets  to  the  moon;"  but  if  the  Emperor 
were  so  disp.ised.  lie  could  change  all  that  in  a  moment. 
He  could  employ  the  Hanlin  in  translating  out  of  Eng- 
lish as  well  as  into  Manchu— in  studying  science  as  well 
as  letters. 

Nor  are  indications  wantinq;  that  this  change  in  the 
direction  of  their  mental  activity  is  likely  to  take  place. 
Some  years  aijo  Prince  Kung  proposed  that  the  junior 
members  of  the  HauIin  sliould  he  reipiired  to  attend  the 
Tung  Wen  College,  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring  the  lan- 
guages and  sciences  of  Europe.  Wo  Jen,  a  president  of 
the  Ilanlin  and  teacher  of  the  Emperor,  presented  a 
counter-memorial,  and  the  measure  failed.  But  such  is 
the  march  of  events  that  the  same  measure,  possibly  in 
some  tnodifu .!  form,  is  sure  to  be  revived,  and  destined  to 
he  finally  successful. 

When  that  time  arrives,  the  e.\ample  of  the  Academy 


e 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


will  have  great  weight  in  promoting  a  radical  revolution 
in  the  character  of  the  national  education  * 

*  Afii  r  the-  war  with  Japan,  the  yottngcr  academicians  organized 
a  Reform  Club,  and  began  to  talk  al)oui  the  need  of  a  parliament. 
The  club  was  suppressed  by  decree,  but  most  of  its  members 
were  still  active  in  the  cause  oi  educational  reform.  On  the 
opcnmg  cf  the  New  U-iversity  some  entered  u  studcnU  of 
foreign  languaj^. 


XIX 


AN  OLD  UNIVERSITY  IN  CHINA 

IT  is  not,  perhaps,  generally  known  that  Peking  con- 
tains an  ancient  tinivcrrity ;  for,  tlioiurh  certain 
buildings  connected  witl)  it  have  been  frequently 
described,  the  institution  itself  has  been  but  little  noticed. 
It  pives.  indeed,  so  few  siq-ns  of  life  that  it  is  not  siiri)ris- 
ing  it  should  be  overlooked.  And  yet  few  of  the  insti- 
tutions of  this  hoary  Empire  are  invested  with  a  deeper 
interest,  as  venerable  relics  of  tlie  past,  and.  at  the  same 
time,  as  mournful  illustrations  of  the  degenerate  present. 

If  a  local  situation  be  deemed  an  essential  element  of 
identity,  this  old  university  must  yield  tlie  palm  of  age 
to  many  in  Europe,  for  in  its  present  site  it  dates,  at  most, 
only  from  the  Yuan,  or  Mongol  dynasty,  in  the  beginning 
of  the  fourteenth  centiirv  P.nt  as  an  imperial  institution, 
having  a  fixed  organizal'on  and  definite  objects,  it  carries 
its  history,  or  at  least  \t>  pedigree,  back  t(,  i  period  far 
anterior  to  the  founding  of  the  Great  Wall. 

Among  the  Regulations  r  ;'  the  House  of  Chou.  which 
flourished  a  thousand  years  before  the  Christian  era,  we 
meet  with  it  already  in  full-blown  vigor,  and  under  the 
identical  name  which  it  now  be;;i  s.  tliat  of  Kiio  Tzc  Chien, 
or  "  School  for  the  Sons  of  the  Epipire."  It  was  in  its 
glory  before  the  light  of  science  dawned  on  Greece,  and 
when  Pythagoras  and  Plato  wer<'  piviiping  tbeir  secrets 
from  the  priests  of  Heliopolis,  !t  still  exists,  but  it  is 
only  an  embodiment  of  "  life  in  fieatli :  "  its  halls  are 
tombs,  and  its  officers  living  mummies. 

371 


37*  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY^ 


In  the  13th  Book  of  Chou  Li  we  find  the  functimis  of 
tlic  heads  uf  tlie  Kuo  Tze  Chien  laid  down  with  a  good 
deal  of  minuteness. 

The  presidents  were  to  admonish  the  Emperor  of  that 
which  is  good  ami  just,  and  to  instruct  the  Sons  of  the 
State  in  the  "  i\w  constant  virtues  "  ami  the  "  tliret  prac- 
tical duties  " — in  other  words,  to  give  a  course  of  lectures 
on  mural  philisophy.  The  vice-presidents  were  to  reprove 
the  Emperor  for  liis  faults  (i,  ,  .  to  perform  the  duty  of 
ofhcial  censors)  and  to  discipline  the  Sons  of  the  State  in 
sciences  and  arts — viz.,  in  arithmetic,  writing,  music, 
archery,  horsemanship,  and  ritual  ceremonies.  The  titles 
and  offices  of  the  subordinate  instructors  are  not  given  in 
detail,  but  we  are  able  to  infer  them  with  a  good  degree 
of  certaiiuy  from  what  we  know  of  the  organization  as  it 
now  exists. 

The  old  curriculum  is  religiously  adhered  to,  but  greater 
latitude  is  given,  as  we  shall  have  occasion  to  observe,  to 
the  term  "  Sons  of  the  State."  In  the  days  of  Chou,  this 
meant  the  iieir-api)arent,  princes  of  the  blood,  and  chil- 
dren of  the  nobility.  Under  the  Ta  Ch'ing  dynasty  it 
signifies  men  of  defective  scholarship  throughout  the 
provinces,  who  purchase  litera.  •  degrees,  and  more 
specifically  certain  indigent  students  of  Peking,  who  are 
aided  by  the  imperial  hmtfity. 

The  Kuo  Tze  Chien  is  located  in  the  northeastern  angle 
of  the  Tartar  city,  with  a  temple  of  Confucius  attached, 
which  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  Empire.  The  main  edifice 
(that  of  the  temple)  consists  of  a  single  story  of  im- 
posing height,  with  a  porcelain  roof  of  tent-like  curvature. 
It  shelters  no  nhjtet  of  veneration  l)cyond  simple  tablets 
of  wood  inscribed  with  the  name  of  the  sage  and  those 
of  his  most  illiistridus  disciples.  It  contains  no  seats,  as 
all  comers  are  expected  to  stand  or  kneel  in  presence 


AN  OLD  UNIVERSITY 


of  the  Great  1  eacher.   Neither  does  it  beast  anything  in 

the  way  nf  artistic  ilccoratioii,  nor  vxliiljit  any  trace  of 
that  neatness  antl  taste  wliich  we  look  for  in  a  sacred 
place.  Perhaps  its  vast  area  is  designedly  left  to  dust 
anil  emptiness,  in  order  that  notliin^f  may  intervene  to 
disturh  the  mind  in  the  contemplation  of  a  great  name 
which  receives  the  homage  of  a  nation. 

Giltled  tahlets,  erected  hy  various  emperors — the  only 
ornamental  objects  that  meet  tlie  eyi — record  the  praises 
of  Confucius;  one  pronounces  him  liie  "  culimnation  of 
the  sajjes,"  another  descrilies  him  as  forming  a  "  trinity 
with  Heaven  and  Kartli,"  and  a  third  declares  that  "his 
liuly  suul  was  sent  down  from  heaven."  A  grove  of 
cedars,  the  chosen  emblem  of  a  fame  that  never  fades, 
occujiies  a  space  in  front  of  tlie  teini)le,  and  some  of  the 
trees  are  huge  with  the  growth  of  centuries. 

In  an  adjacent  block  or  square  stands  a  pavilion  known 
as  the  "  Imperial  Lecture-room,"  because  it  is  incumbent 
on  each  occupant  of  the  Dragon  throne  to  go  there  at 
least  once  in  his  lifetime  to  hear  a  discourse  on  the 
nature  and  responsiliilities  of  his  office— thus  conform- 
ing to  the  letter  of  the  Clwu  Li.  which  makes  it  the  duty 
of  the  officers  of  the  university  to  administer  reproof 
and  exhortation  to  tlieir  sovereign,*  and  doing  homage 
to  the  university  by  going  in  person  to  receive  its 
instruction. 

A  canal  spanned  by  marble  bridges  encircles  the 

pavilion,  and  arches  of  fjlitterin<^  jKircelain,  in  excellent 
repair,  adorn  the  grounds.  But  neither  these  nor  the 
pavilion  itself  constitutes  the  chief  attraction  of  the  place. 

Under  a  l  in^-  ccjrridor  which  encloses  the  entire  space 
may  he  seen  as  many  as  one  hundred  anr!  eighty-two 

*  Tlu'v  still  (liscliarge  these  functions  in  writing,  their  me- 
morials frequently  appearing  in  the  pages  of  the  Peking  Gtuette. 


374  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


columns  of  massive  granite,  each  inscribed  with  a  portion 

of  the  canonical  books.  These  are  the  "  Stone  Classics  " 
— t!ie  entire  "  Thirteen,"  which  form  the  staple  of  a 
Chinese  education,  l)eing  here  enshrined  in  a  material 
siii)pusL(l  to  lit  iinperisliable.  Among  all  tin.'  univcrsiiii-s 
in  the  world,  the  Kuo  Tze  Chien  is  unique  in  the 
possession  of  such  a  library. 

This  is  not,  indeed,  the  (inl\  >{tmv  lilirary  extant — 
another  of  equal  extent  is  foiiiul  at  lisi  An,*  the  ancient 
capital  of  tiie  T'angs.  I!ul  tiiat.  too,  was  the  property  of 
the  Kuo  Tze  Chien  ten  centuries  ago,  when  Hsi  An  was 
the  seat  of  eni])in'.  '!"!;  ■  "  Schiml  fm-  tl.c  Sons  of  the  Km- 
pire  "  must  needs  follow  the  migrations  of  the  court ;  and 
that  library,  costly  as  it  was,  being  too  heavy  'or  trans- 
portation, it  was  ;hoit,i^lit  hist  to  supjily  its  place  by  the 
new  edition  which  we  have  been  describing. 

The  use  of  this  heavy  literature  is  a  matter  for  specu- 
lation, a  question  almost  as  difficult  of  solution  as  the 
design  of  the  pyramids.  Was  it  intended  to  supply  the 
world  with  a  standard  text — a  safe  channel  through 
which  the  streams  of  wisdom  might  be  transmitted  pure 
and  undcfiled?  Or  were  their  sacred  books  enp;raved 
on  stone  to  secure  them  from  any  modern  madman,  who 
might  take  it  into  his  head  to  ^^niulate  the  Tyrant  of  Ch'in, 
the  burner  of  the  books  and  builder  of  the  Creat  Wall? 
If  the  former  was  the  object,  it  was  useless,  as  paper 
editions,  well  executed  and  carefully  preserved,  would 
have  answered  the  purpose  eiiually  well.  If  the  latt-. . 
it  was  absurd,  as  granite  though  fire-proof,  is  not  in- 
destructible ;  and  long  before  these  columns  were  erected, 
the  iliscoverv  of  the  art  of  printing  had  forever  plact.l 
the  depositories  i  f  wisdom  beyond  the  reach  of  the  bar- 

*  The  city  to  which  the  Empress  Dowager  anil  her  court  retired 
when  the  Allied  troops  captured  Pekin  in  i^oo. 


AN  OLD  UNIVERSITY  375 

barianV  torch.  It  is  characteristic  of  the  Qiinese  to  ask 

for  110  l)cttcr  roasoii  iliaii  ancient  custom.  Their  fore- 
fathers engraved  these  classics  on  stone,  and  tlu ■>  tmist 
do  the  same.  But  whatever  may  have  been  tlu  urigmal 
disi^n.  ilic  triR-  light  in  which  to  regard  these  curious 
books  is  that  of  an  impressive  tribute  to  the  sources  of 
Chinese  civilization. 

I  may  niLiuion  here  that  the  Rev.  Dr.  Williamson,  on 
a  visit  to  llsi  All  saw  many  jHTsims  cni^'ai^cd  in  taking 
"  rubbings  "  from  tiie  stone  classics  of  that  city ;  and  he 
informs  us  that  complete  copies  were  sold  at  a  ver>  Iiigh 
rate.  Tlu>  poimlarity  of  tlu'  llsi  An  tablets  is  accounted 
for  by  the  tlavor  of  antiquity  which  they  possess,  and 
especially  by  the  style  of  the  engraving,  which  is  much 
admired— or,  more  properly,  the  calligraphy  which  it 
reproduces.  These  of  Peking  are  not  at  all  patronized 
by  the  printers,  and  yet  if  textual  accuracy  were  the 
object,  they  ought,  as  a  later  edition,  to  be  more  highly 
prized  than  the  otliers.  A  native  ciceronr  whom  I  once 
questioned  as  to  the  object  of  these  stones  replied,  with  a 
naivete  quite  refreshing,  that  they  were  "  set  up  for  the 
amusement  of  visitors"— an  answer  whicli  1  should  have 
set  to  the  credit  of  Ins  ready  wit,  if  he  had  not  proceeded 
to  iiiform  me  that  neither  students  nor  editors  ever  come 
to  consult  the  text,  and  that  "  rubbings  "  are  never  taken. 

In  front  of  the  temple  stands  a  forest  of  columns  of 
scarcely  inferior  interest.  They  are  three  hundred  and 
twenty  in  number,  and  contain  the  university  roll  of 
honor,  a  complete  list  of  all  who  since  the  founding  of 
the  institution  have  attained  to  the  dignity  of  the  doc- 
torate. Allow  to  each  an  average  of  two  hundred  names, 
and  we  have  an  army  of  doctors  sixty  thousand  strong! 
(By  the  doctorate  I  Jiican  the  third  or  highest  degree.) 
All  these  received  their  investiture  at  the  Kuo  Tze  Chien 


376 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


and,  tlirowinK  tliciiiMlvi^  ;U  tlie  feet  of  its  prtsidtiit, 
enrolled  thciiiiiclvcs  among  tl'c  "  Sons  of  the  Enipirt  " 
They  wen-  not.  however — at  least  the  most  of  them  were 
not — in  any  I'minr  sinsc  alumni  of  the  Kiio  l  /c  (  liicn, 
haviiii;  itiiiMud  their  studies  in  private,  and  won  their 
honors  by  piililic  conipetiliun  in  the  halls  of  the  Civil- 
service  Examining  Board. 

This  ,i,'r:initi'  re^nstiT  ^'oes  taek  for  six  liimdrt  d  yi  ars ; 
hut  while  iiUe.uled  to  stimulate  anilntiuii  and  k'*"'') 
pride,  it  reads  to  the  new  graduate  a  lesson  of  humility — 
slinuini;  liiiii  linw  reni(H-scles>ly  time  CMii>it:n>  all  human 
honors  to  oblivion.  I  he  columns  are  (juite  exposed,  and 
those  that  arc  more  than  a  century  old  are  so  defaced  by 
the  weather  as  to  be  no  longer  legible. 

If  in  the  matter  of  conferring  degrees  the  Kuo  Tze 
Chien  "  beats  the  world,"  it  must  be  remembered  that  it 
enjoys  the  monopoly  of  the  Empire — so  far  as  the 
doctorate  is  concerned. 

Hesitles  these  departments,  intended  mainly  to  com- 
memorate the  past,  there  is  an  immense  area  occupied  by 
lecture-rooms,  examinalion-lialls,  and  Iv'''".'  ipart 
nients.  But  the  visitor  is  liable  to  imagine  that  llic>e,  too, 
are  consecrated  to  a  monumental  use — so  rarely  is  a  stu- 
dent or  a  professor  to  be  sevii  amonj^  tbcm.  <  )rdin:irily 
they  arc  as  desolate  a.-^  the  halls  of  Uaalbec  or  Talmyra. 
In  fact,  this  great  school  for  the  "  Sons  of  the  Empire  " 
has  long  ceased  to  be  a  seat  of  instruction,  and  ile^ener- 
ated  into  a  mere  appendage  of  the  civil-service  comiieti- 
tive  examinations,  on  which  it  hangs  as  a  dead  weight, 
corrupting  and  debasing  instead  of  advancing  the  stand- 
ard of  national  education. 

By  an  old  law,  made  for  the  purpose  of  enliancing  the 
importance  of  this  institution,  the  possession  of  a  scholar- 
ship carries  with  it  the  privilege  of  wearing  decorations 


AN  OLD  UNIVERSITY 


377 


which  Ix  loiifi  to  tlic  first  degree,  and  of  entering  the  li.«s 
to  compete  fjr  the  second,  'lliis  naturally  causid  smh 
scholarships  to  he  eagerly  sought  for.  and  i  ventiiallv  iiad 
the  effect  of  hringing  them  into  market  as  available  stock 
on  which  to  rai.M'  funds  fur  uovirinm  lu  use.  A  price 
was  placid  on  them,  and  like  the  papal  indulgences,  they 
were  vended  throughout  the  Empire. 

Nevor  -ii)  as  to  be  hcymd  ilic  reach  of  aspiring 

poverty,  their  price  lias  now  descended  to  such  a  figure 
as  to  convert  these  honors  into  ohjccts  of  contempt.  In 
iVKin.i,'  it  is  twenty-three  taels  (al.uiit  tliirtv  silver  dol- 
lars), but  in  the  provinces  they  can  be  had  for  half  that 
sum.  Not  long  ago  one  of  the  censors  expostulated 
with  lii>  Majesty  on  the  suliject  of  these  sales.  He  ex- 
pressed in  strong  language  his  disgust  at  the  idea  of  clod- 
hoppers and  muleteers  appearing  with  the  insignia  of 
literary  rank,  and  dendiiiu  .d  in  no  measured  terms  the 
cheap  sale  of  ranks  r  ,i  orHces  generally.  .'^  ill — and  the 
fact  is  not  a  little  curioi  —it  was  not  the  principle  of 
selling  which  he  condemned,  but  that  reckless  degrada- 
tion of  prices  which  had  the  effect  of  spoiling  the  market. 

It  is  not  our  purpose  to  take  up  the  lamentation  of  this 
patriotic  censor,  or  to  show  how  the  opening  of  title  and 
office  hrokeries  lowers  the  credit  and  sa])s  the  influence 
of  the  government.  Yet  this  traftk  has  a  close  relation 
to  the  subject  in  hand ;  for,  whatever  rank  or  title  may  be 
the  object  of  ]nircliase,  a  university  scholarship  must  of 
necessity  be  ])iirchased  along  with  it,  as  the  r™it  on 
which  it  is  grafted.  Accordingly  the  flooil-gates  of 
this  fountain  of  honors  are  kept  wide  open,  and  a  very 
ileluge  of  diplomas  issues  froiii  them.  A  vear  nr  two  ago 
a  hundred  thousand  were  sent  into  the  provim  es  at  one 
time ! 

The  scholars  of  this  old  institution  accordingly  out- 


378 


I  Ht  LORE  OK  CAI  HAY 


niimlii  r  tlmsc  of  ()\fnr(l  or  I'aris  in  their  days. 
Uiit  there  arc  thousands  ui  her  adopted  cliildren  who 
have  never  seen  the  walls  of  Peking,  and  thousands  more 
within  tlie  precincts  of  the  capital  who  have  never  entered 
her  K^tcs. 

Thuvf  who  are  tiK)  impatient  to  wait  the  slow  results  of 
cotiii"  !  iin  ill  thiir  native  districts  are  accustomed  to 
seek  at  tlic  ■iiiivi  r--it  v  the  r(  <[ui-'itc  t|iialifK'ati<iiis  for 
coiiipitinj;  li  r  ilic  iiij,dier  degrees.  I'lic^c  (iiialilicatiuns 
are  not  difficult  of  attainment — the  payment  of  a  trifling 
ft'c  and  ^uhmission  to  a  formal  examination  being  all  that 
is  riiiuiifd. 

For  a  few  weeks  previous  to  the  fjreat  triennial  ex- 

aniinali  'ii-.  tlu'  liid^iiif^-liiuiM  '  ui  tlic  nnivrr^ily  arc  tilletl 
with  stiidiiit-^  who  are  "  craiiiiiiiiig  "  lor  the  occasion.  At 
other  times  tlu  v  present  the  aspect  of  a  deserted  village. 

After  liu' accession  of  t!u  Manchu  Tariar>  in  i'i44.  eight 
schools  or  colk't^es  were  establisheii  for  the  heiietit  of  the 
eight  trihes  or  banners  into  which  the  Tartars  of  Peking 
are  divided.  Tliey  were  projected  on  a  liberal  scale,  and 
afhliated  tn  tiu'  university,  their  special  ni.je-.'*  :i.  in;;-  to 
promote  aiiioii^  tlie  rude  invader^  a  i<iiou ledj,c  (j1  Liii- 
nese  letters  and  civilization.  Eacli  was  provided  with  a 
staff  of  five  professors,  and  ha<l  an  attendance  of  one 
hundred  and  five  jjupils,  who  were  encouraged  by  a 
monthly  stipend  and  regarded  as  in  training  for  thf;  pub- 
service.  Tlio  central  hiniinary  an<l  its  satellites  pre- 
sented at  that  time  a  brilliant  and  imposing  spectacle. 

At  present,  however,  the  system  is  practically  aban- 
doned, the  •ollet^e  ImiMiii'^s  have  fallen  to  rnin.  ami  not 
one  of  them  is  open  for  the  instruction  of  youth.  Nothing 
remains  as  a  reminiscence  of  the  ])ast  but  a  sham  exami- 
nation, whicli  i^  held  t'mni  lime  to  time  to  enable  the 
professors  and  students  to  draw  their  pay.   Seme  years 


AN  OLD  UNIVERSITY 


afro  an  effort  was  made  to  rcsusciiatc  tlusi-  govirtiiiuiit 
-scliuuls  hy  requiring  attendance  i.nct-  in  three  days,  but 
sii'  li  an  outcry  was  raisol  a^';ii!i>t  it  iliat  it  mJui  f,ll 
through.    Those  vvhu  cared  tu  Karn  could  harn  hotter  at 
home,  and  those  who  did  not  care  for  learning  would 
choose  to  disjicnsc  with  their  pdisiMiK  ratlu  r  tliaii  take 
the  trouble  of  attending  m.  Incnuntly.    So  tiic  students 
remain  at  home,  and  the  professors  enjoy  their  sine- 
cures, havinj,'  DM  s,  ri.m.  (lni\  in  |H  ri"orm,  i  vccpting  the 
worship  of  Confiicius.    Hk-  presidents  of  the  university 
are  even  designate<l  by  a  title  which  signifies  lihation- 
poiirers.  indicaliiitr  thai  ilii^  ,  in|,i\  c  reinoiiy  is  regarded 
as  their  highest  function,    i  u  ice  a  month  ( viz.,  at  the 
new  and  full  m<x}n)  all  the  professors  are  reipiired  to 
assi  iiiMe  in  oftRial  rohes,  and  perform  nine  prostrations 
on  the  Hag-stones,  at  a  respectful  distance,  in  front  of  the 
temple. 

F.veii  this  duty  a  f)!iable  conscience  enables  them  to  alle- 
viate by  performing  it  hy  proxy  One  nuMiber  of  each 
college  appears  for  the  rest,  and  after  tlie  ceremony 
infrrilws  llu  names  of  Ins  colleagues  in  a  ledger  called 
the  "  Record  of  Diligence,"  in  evidence  that  they  were  all 
present. 

Negligent  and  perfunctory  as  they  arc,  they  are  not 

much  to  I)e  I>lame(l  ;  they  <!o  as  much  a-  tliey  are  paid 
for.  Two  taels  per  montii  ($1.50),  together  with  two 
suits  of  clothes  and  two  bushels  of  rice  per  annum,  and 
a  fur  jacket  oncv  in  three  years — tliese  are  their  emolu- 
ments as  fixed  by  law.  Scant  as  llie  iimnev  allowance 
originally  was,  it  is  still  further  reduced  iiy  being  paid 
in  depreciated  curretu  y.  and  actually  amounts  to  less  than 
one  dollar  |)er  iiioitth.  The  reqiiisifion  for  tr'H'emment 
rice  is  disposed  of  at  a  similar  discount,  the  hungry  pro- 
fessor being  obliged  to  sell  it  to  a  broker  instead  of 


38o  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


(Irawincr  directly  from  the  imperial  storehouses.    As  for 

tlu'  clotliir.j;.  tlicri.'  is  rixnn  to  suspect  that  it  lias  wanned 
otlier  sliouhkrs  before  coming  into  his  possession.* 

Professorships,  however,  possess  a  value  independent 
of  salary.  The  empty  title  carries  with  it  a  social  dis- 
tinctinii;  and  the  completiun  of  a  three  years'  term  of 
iioiuiiial  service  renders  a  jirofessnr  elitjihle  to  the  post 
of  district  magistrate.  These  places,  therefore,  do  not 
Ro  a-hei^i^ini^,  thi>Ui;h  their  incunilnnts  sonu'linu's  do. 

In  order  to  form  a  just  idea  of  the  Kuo  Tze  Chien,  we 
must  study  its  constitution.  This  will  acquaint  us  with 
the  desifxn  of  its  foumiers,  and  show  ns  what  it  was  in 
its  prime,  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  dynasty,  or, 
for  that  matter,  at  the  beginning  of  any  other  dynasty 
that  has  nikil  China  for  the  last  three  thousand  years. 
We  find  it  in  the  To  cV/'/h^^  Htii  l  ien,  the  collected  stat- 
utes of  the  reigniuLT  dynasty ;  and  it  looks  so  well  on 
paper  that  we  cannot  refrain  from  admiring  the  wisdom 
and  liberalitv  of  the  ancient  worthies  who  plaiuied  it,  how- 
ever pottrlv  its  present  state  answers  to  their  original  con- 
ception. Wc  find  our  respect  for  the  Chinese  increasing 
as  we  recede  from  the  jinsent ;  and  in  China,  among  the 
dust  and  decay  of  her  anti(piated  and  effete  uistitutions, 
one  may  be  excused  for  catching  the  common  infection, 
and  l>ccoming  a  worshipper  oi  antiquity. 

Its  officers,  according  to  this  authority,  consist  of  a 
rector,  who  is  selected  from  among  the  chief  ministers  of 
the  State;  two  presi<Ienfs  and  three  vice-pre^idmts,  who 
have  the  grade  and  title  of  la  jCii,  or  "  great  man."  and, 
together  with  the  rector,  constitute  the  governing  l)ody ; 
two  f>o  shih,  or  directors  of  instruction  ;  two  proctors ;  two 

*  Tli("-o  Wi-rr  oI.ihim.  iI  from  onv  of  ihv  professors,  who 

aJdtd  to  his  income  by  serving  iiR-  as  a  scribe. 


AN  OLD  UNIVERSITY  381 

secretaries ;  an(^  one  librarian ;  these  arc  t^encral  officers. 
Then  i-nin-        o;.':>rr.      t!ie  several  college-. 

There  ar,  si:--  colleges  l.-'  Chinese  students,  hearinq-  the 
names  of  '  !;r-.!|  for  the  '"ursiiit  of  Wisdom,"  "  Hall  of 
the  Sin.  .p.  .  .  ft.-  ■Hall  of  True  Virtne,"  "Hall  of 
Noble  Aspirations,"  "  hall  nf  I?rnad  Acquirements."  and 
"  Hall  for  the  Guidance  of  Xature."  Each  of  these  has 
two  rcjjular  professors,  and  I  know  not  how  many  assist- 
ants. There  are  eigln  cnlle-es  f,:,r  the  Manchu  Tartars, 
as  above  mentioned,  each  with  five  professors.  Lastly, 
there  is  a  school  for  the  Russian  language,  and  a  school 
for  mathematics  and  astronomv.  each  with  one  professor. 
To  these  we  add  six  clerks  and  translators,  and  we  have 
a  total  of  seventy-one  persons,  constituting  what  wc  may 
call  the  corporal  inn  of  the  university. 

As  to  the  curriculum  of  studies,  its  literature  was  n-vcr 
expected  to  1:0  beyond  the  thirteen  classics  engra\e(l  on 
t!'e  stones  wliicli  adnrn  its  halls;  while  its  arts  and  sci- 
ences were  all  comprehended  in  the  familiar  "  Six."  which 
from  the  days  of  Chou,  if  not  from  those  of  Yao  and 
Shun,  have  formed  the  trivium  and  qmdrivtum  of  the 
Chinese  people. 

It  would  be  doing  injustice  to  the  ancients  to  accuse 
them  of  limiting  the  scientfic  studies  of  the  Kuo  Tze 
Chien  by  their  narrow  formu!a\  The  truth  is,  that,  little 
as  the  ancients  accom])lished  in  this  line,  their  modern 
disciples  have  not  attempted  to  emulate  or  overtake  them. 
In  the  University  of  ( ira,  ,1  Cairo,  it  is  said,  no  science  that 
more  recent  than  the  twelfth  centurv  is  allowed  to  he 
taught.  In  that  of  China,  the  "  School  for  the  Sons  of 
the  Empire,"  no  science  whatever  is  taught. 

This  is  not,  however,  owing  to  any  restriction  in  the 
constitution  or  charter,  as  its  terms  afford  sufficient  scope 


382  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


for  expansion  if  the  officers  of  the  university  had  pos- 
sessed the  (li^inoitiuii  or  tlic  capacity  io  avail  tliemsclvcs 
of  such  liberty.  It  is  thwrc  said,  tor  example,  "  As  to 
practical  arts,  such  as  the  art  of  war,  astronomy,  en- 
pravinj;,  imisic,  law,  and  the  like,  let  the  professors  lead 
their  students  to  the  original  sources  and  point  out  the 
defects  and  the  merits  of  each  author." 

Is  there  any  ground  for  hope  that  this  ancient  school, 
once  ;m  Hrnametil  to  the  l-lmijire,  may  he  renovated,  re- 
modelled and  adaiited  to  the  altered  circumstances  of  the 
age?  The  prospect,  we  think,  is  not  encouraging.  A 
traveller,  mi  tiUeriiig  the  city  nf  Tekint:.  is  ^lruck  by  the 
vast  extent  and  skilful  uiasoiny  of  its  sewers ;  but  he  is 
not  less  astonished  at  their  present  dilapidated  condition, 
reeking  with  filth  and  breeding  pestilence,  instead  of  min- 
istering to  the  health  of  the  city.  When  these  cloaca:  are 
restored,  and  lively  streams  of  mountain  water  are  made 
to  course  through  all  their  veins  and  arteries,  then,  and 
not  till  then,  may  this  Id  university  be  reconstructed  and 
perform  a  part  in  the  renovation  of  the  Empire. 

Creation  is  ^ninelinies  easier  than  reformation.  It  wa> 
a  conviction  of  this  fact  that  led  the  more  enlightened 
among  the  Chinese  ministers  some  years  ago  to  favor 
the  establishment  of  a  new  institution  for  the  cultivation 
of  foreign  science,  rather  than  attempt  to  introduce  it 
through  any  of  the  existing  channels,  such  as  the  Kuo 
Tze  Chien,  Astronomical  College,  or  Board  of  Works. 

Their  undertaking  met  with  strenuous  opposition  from 
a  party  of  bigoted  conservatives,  headed  by  Wo  Jen,  a 
member  of  the  privy  council,  and  tutor  to  his  Majesty. 
Through  his  influence,  mainly,  the  educated  classes  were 
induciil  to  stand  aloof,  professing  that  they  would  be 
better  employed  in  teaching  the  Western  barbarians  than 
in  learning  from  them.   Wo  Jen  scouted  the  idea  that  in 


AN  OLD  UNIVERSITY  383 


so  vast  an  Empire  there  could  be  any  want  of  natives 
qualified  to  pive  instruction  in  all  the  branches  proposed 

to  be  studied. 

The  Emperor  took  him  at  his  word,  and  told  him  to 

conic  forward  with  his  men ;  and  he  miglit  haw  carte- 
blanchc  for  the  estabiisliment  of  a  rival  school.  He 
declined  the  trial,  and  by  way  of  compromise  he  was 
appiintod  rector  of  tlie  Kuo  Tze  Chien— the  "  School  for 
the  Sons  of  the  Empire." 

After  my  return  to  Peking  in  1897,  Huang,  one  of  tlie 
Presidents,  cxciianged  visits  with  me  and  expressed  an 
earnest  desire  that  something  might  he  done  to  place  the 
education  of  Cliina  on  a  new  footing,  but  he  held  out  no 
hope  for  the  renovation  of  the  "  Old  University."  The 
creation  of  a  New  I'nivcrsity  in  the  following  vear  was 
the  realization  of  a  widefelt  and  long-cherished  desire. 


BOOK  V 

History 


XX 


THE  STUDY  OF  CHINESE  HISTORY 

AMONG  the  various  departimnts  into  wImcIi  Ur- 
litcratiiri'  of  tlie  Chinese  is  divided,  that  which 
in  iny  (.pinion  will  best  ri'jKiy  tlu'  attfntion  of 
luiropcan  .scholars  is  tlicir  History.  \  ct  like  tiicir  ven- 
erated classic,  tile  I'ook  of  Changes,  of  which  they  affirm 
that  it  can  never  lie  transported  lievotid  the  seas,  there 
is  reason  to  fear  tliat  their  history  is  not  very  well 
adajited  for  exportation. 

In  its  native  form,  it  may  find  translators;  but  they 
will  not  find  readers.  Its  form  requires  to  be  trans- 
formed ;  and  its  very  substance  to  underg(j  a  transubstan- 
tiation,  in  order  to  adapt  it  to  the  taste  of  our  Western 
puMic.  lieyond  a  substratnm  of  facts,  there  is  absolutelv 
no  part  of  it  capable  of  surviving  a  transfer  to  the  West- 
em  world. 

In  the  West,  the  Father  of  History,  or  some  of  his 
editors,  prefixed  the  names  of  the  Muses  to  the  several 
portions  of  his  immortal  work — indicating  that  the  idea 
of  beauty  jiresidcd  over  its  composition,  and  consecrating 
the  "  art  preservative  of  arts  "  to  the  patronage  of  all  the 
Sacred  Nine. 

In  China,  tlie  conception  of  history  is  that  of  a  simple 
record ;  not  that  of  a  work  of  art. 

In  one  of  the  Taoist  legends,  an  old  man.  who  has 
tasted  the  elixir  of  immortality,  is  asked  to  tell  his  age. 
"  I  count  it  not,"  he  replies.  "  by  years,  but  by  terrestrial 

387 


388  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


catady^tiis     As  often  as  a  continent  sinks  into  the 

Ikwoiii  of  tilt  sea,  or  a  new  world  enu'rijis  from  tin-  (iccati, 
I  ilrnp  a  liitli-  pi'I)l)It.'  to  commemorate  tlie  occurrence. 
The  accumulation  of  f)ebblcs  is  now  so  fjreat  that  they 
fill  cli  Nrn  i  liamlnTs  df  niv  ilw illiiij^."  Hero  \vi'  liavc  an 
tml)oiliiiKiu  111  liie  };eiiius  of  Clun  -c  History — not  a 
Muse  stainpinr;  on  it  the  impress  of  ilivine  beauty,  but 
sbri\i'llril  liKi-  tliat  uf  l  iiliomis,  or  the  wandering 
Jew,  proerviii},'  a  iiioiiotunous  record  of  the  changes  that 
occur  in  the  course  of  an  endless  life. 

The  accumulation  of  coiiiitt  rs  set  forth  in  this  lej^end 
is  an  expressive  i'iiil)letii  of  t'n  vavtiuss  of  riiiiiaV  his- 
toric treasure.  In  this  nspect.  as  Jlegil  has  remarked 
in  his  Philoso[^liii-  dcr  (Jcschichtc,  there  is  a  striking  con- 
trast hetutrii  till-  lu.i  i^'irat  empires  of  Asia — the  ("hinese 
havmj^  a  historual  liieialure  more  vuhimiuous  than  liiat 
of  any  other  nation  on  earth,  and  the  Hindus  none  at  all. 
The  ixplanalioii  of  tlii.s  pheiic niuiioti,  if  we  seek  for  one, 
will  lie  found  in  the  fact  that  history  is  the  expression  of 
national  life — a  tissue  resembling  that  of  a  living  organ- 
ism knitting  the  jjast  and  present  into  a  substantial  unity. 
Their  historical  literature,  accordingly,  more  than  any- 
thing else,  unless  it  be  their  educational  system,  affords  an 
index  of  the  greatness  of  the  Chinese  people.  With  them 
the  w'lrshi]!  of  ancestors  is  an  exjiression  of  their  sense  of 
solidarity  ;  and  lustory  a  testament,  by  which  they  convey 
to  posterity  the  legacy  of  the  past. 

The  ]>reoautintis  which  they  take  to  secure  and  to 
transmit  the  record  iietoken  a  proud  consciousness  hat 
the  current  of  their  national  life  is  too  strong  to  be  s  al- 
lowed up  1  \  tile  shifting  sands  of  time.  That  record, 
though  it  extends  to  tlie  people,  starts  from  the  throne  as 
its  centre,  and  no  less  than  four  bureaus  or  colleges,  each 
presided  over  by  learned  members  of  the  Hanlin,  are 


THE  STUDY  OF  CHINESE  HISTORY  389 


charged  with  collecting  and  cIa1)oratinp  materials  for  the 

Iiisti>r\-  (if  cn-li  rr\iiu  :\ui\  its  lUTircst  incilfctxsi .rs.  'I'lii'y 
die  r.iireaii  of  Daily  Reconl,  tlie  lliireau  of  I'oiiteni- 
porary  History;  the  Hnreau  of  Dynastic  History;  the 
iiiircaii  of  Military  liisiory.  This  last,  as  its  name  im- 
plies i);cu,iies  itself  with  wars  foreign  or  domestic. 
The  lUjreaii  of  Daily  Record  has  its  representatives  al- 
ways at  the  side  of  His  Imperial  Majesty.  W  lu  ilier  in 
his  {Kilace  or  on  a  journey,  or  in  .so-ialkil  iiiirement, 
he  can  no  more  escape  the  eye  of  these  otVicial  sjiii  s  than 
I  lorace's  trooper  could  outrun  the  tormentor  that  mounted 
heliind  liim. 

Here  is  a  paragraph  from  the  instructions  to  the  otVuers 
of  this  hureau.  In  respect  to  lahorious  minuteness  it  may 
be  taken  as  a  sample  of  the  working  of  ;ill  these  colleges: 

'■  Tliey  (the  scribes)  are  to  take  note  of  the  down- 
sitting  and  up-rising  of  His  Majesty ;  and  to  keep  a  record 
of  every  word  or  action.  They  are  to  attend  I  II-  Majesty 
when  he  hohls  court  and  gives  audience;  wh.ii  lu  visits 
the  Altar  of  Heaven,  the  Temple  of  .\ncestor- ;  when  he 
holds  a  heast  of  the  Classics,  or  jilows  the  .Sarred  Field; 
when  he  inspects  the  m  IkkiIs,  or  res  it  u  s  the  tioops; 
when  he  bestows  etitertainments,  ct  lehr.iles  a  military 
frinmii'  ir  decides  the  fate  of  criminals.  They  must 
follow  tile  I".ni|)eror  in  his  hunting  excursions:  .-uid  (hiring 
his  sojoum  at  his  country  palace.  They  will  hear  the 
Imperial  voice  with  reverence  and  note  its  utterances  with 
care;  aiipending  to  every  entry  the  date  and  the  name  of 
the  writer.  .\t  the  end  of  every  month  these  records 
shall  be  sealed  up  and  ilcix)sited  in  a  desk;  and  at  the 
close  of  the  year  they  shall  be  transferred  to  the  custody 
of  the  Privy  (,'ouncil. 

The  Emperor's  public  acts  and  public  documents  con- 
stitute the  province  of  the  Shih  Lu  Kuan,  the  Bureau 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


of  Coiiuuitiorary  llislury.  llif  Kuo  Shilt  Kuan,  or 
Bureau  of  Dynastic  History,  occupies  itself  with  the 

ardiivcs  of  llu'  ruling  lioiisc,  aii.l  llu'  li^nf^tapliics  of 
those  who  arc  bUpiiuscU  to  liavc  slicil  lustre  t>ii  its  reign. 

These  tribunals  form  an  essential  part  of  the  machinery 
of  government,  supplying  a  check  on  liie  extravagance  of 
irresponsilile  jiower  where  no  other  would  be  availaijle — 
the  dread  ul  being  held  up  to  the  execration  of  posterity 
operating  quite  as  effectually  as  the  renmnstraiiees  oi  a 
board  of  iiiisors.  The  censors  are  still  called  by  a  title 
"  i  u  ^liili  "  which  means  ot'ticiai  historian;  ami,  though 
no  longer  employed  in  the  production  of  histor\ ,  they  are 
wont  to  draw  their  weif^litiest  ari,Mnncn!s  from  tlu-  history 
of  the  past,  and  to  make  their  most  solemn  appeals  to 
the  history  of  the  future. 

In  palmy  ilays  of  Chou.  when  the  in=titutions  of  the 
empi.  .vere  in  their  infancy,  a  prmce  (jroposed  to  make 
an  excursion  which  had  for  its  object  nothing  better  nor 
worse  than  lii>  own  amusement.  One  of  the  censors, 
after  vainlv  enii)loyiiig  otlier  arguments  to  dissuade  him 
from  his  undertaking,  solemnly  admonished  him  that  all 
his  mov  ;.^nts  were  matters  of  history.  The  ptM)r  jjriiice, 
startle('  ;  the  tluKiglu  that  to  him  there  conld  be  nothing 
trivial — that  his  every  act  was  e.xposed  to  the  "fierce 
light  that  beats  upon  a  throne  " — heaved  a  sigh  of  regret, 
an.l  desisted  from  Ids  innocent  purpose, — that  of  fishing 
on  a  neighboring  lake. 

In  those  days  the  historian  was  as  stern  and  inflexible 
as  the  Roman  Censor  moniin.  In  the  sixth  century  be- 
fore our  era,  there  lived  in  Shantung  a  General,  or  Mairc 
dii  Palais,  named  Ts'ui  Wu  Tze.  Herml-Hke,  he  took 
possession  of  the  wife  of  .mother;  liis  sovereign  in  turn 
dejirivid  Iiini  of  the  fascinatin;^  beauty.  The  (jeneral  in 
revenge  killed  the  Prince;  and,  when  the  Court  Chronicler 


THE  STUDY  OF  CHINESE  HISTORY  391 


put  on  record  this  chapter  of  infamies,  the  General  put 
Iiini  to  (loath,  a.  .1  tore  tlir  Ii.il  fmin  tlii'  Anliivci,  of 
Stale.  A  brother  of  the  historian  renewed  tiie  record, 
and  suffere*!  death  for  doing  so.   A  leaf  was  again  torn 

uiit.  .iinl  ;i  lliini  limther  presented  hinistll',  pen  in  iuin-l, 
to  rei>eal  the  tale  and  seal  it  with  his  blood.  The  tyrant, 
touched  by  his  martyr-like  boldness,  spared  his  life,  and 
submitted  t(i  the  stigma  i  lie  incident  is  handed  down  as 
a  proof  of  tile  nnlimcliing  lidelits-  <>\  .im  icnt  historians, 
and  by  consequence  of  tlie  trust wurthniess  of  their 
narratives. 

In  later  times,  the  clironiclcrs  were  not  so  fearless. 
One,  Ch'en  Lin,  a  man  of  talent,  being  reproached  by 
Ts'ao  Ts'ao  for  drawing  his  portrait  in  rather  sombre 
•i)l(irs,  replied,  while  he  ti-'nibled  for  his  life — "  V'oiir 
liighness  will  furf^ive  me.  I  was  then  detained  in  the 
camp  of  v(jur  enemy,  where  I  had  no  more  freedom  of 
choice  than  the  arrou  shut  from  his  cross-bow." 
Thackera)  sa\  s  of  lii.-,  pm  : 

"  It  never  writ  a  flattery. 
Nor  signed  the  page  that  registered  a  lie." 

With  Chinese  historians,  fear  and  flattery  are  influences 

which,  more  than  any  t)thers,  are  Habit.'  to  deflect  their 
needle  from  the  jKile.  To  guard  against  these  two 
sotirces  of  error,  the  notes  of  every  ('ay  are  dropped  into 
an  iron  chest,  which  is  xvA  to  ])<.■  opened  until  after  the 
ileath  of  the  reii;iiinp  jirinci'.  Wi  this  provision  is  not 
always  effectual ;  llattery  which,  addressed  to  the  living, 
would  lie  deemed  gross  and  disgusting,  falls  like  music 
on  the  ears  of  their  inonrninix  relatives.  T  fence  it  was 
that  Octavia  paid  \'irgil  so  magnificently  for  his  lines  on 
the  dead  Marcellus;  hence  too,  at  the  close  of  the  last 
reign,  the  Empress  mother  welcomed  with  delight  a  pane- 


39a  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

I  K  uii  Ilk  late  l.mpt-Tor.  wliich  inatk-  a  .khauclKd  wcak- 
\\t\\i  api>ear  as  a  star  of  ti\t  lii>t  iii.i;;ii;iii.K  W  .i>  wA 
lln-  Iv'iiiaii  Small  :mn^ti 'iiu>l,  \>\  soK'iuii  vnU-.  to  rair-c 
iJixcasiil  auiKioi>  lu  thi.  skK>,  wlkiuvcf  their  rclatiuiis 
siucoi-tiol  tu  the  thrum-?  The  \siitit-,  of  Cliina  are 
mnllu  r  mull'  iiur  less  trmluiil  llian  lli.-  K.  'Uian>  ;  ai^l  iu'vv 
anil  tiKii  meet  atnuiiu  tlieiu  with  an  iii>laiKi'  ul  luklity 
wortliy  of  Rniues  best  tlays:  e.  K'o  'lu,  a  Censor 

(his  lliiiKsc  iitlc  iiuan.  lii^lnriaii ) ,  smiK  Mar-  ai;.i  \>rn 
tiMid  aKMiii>t  the  altilialK .ii  of  the  priMiit  laiipenpr  to 
llMeii  l  iiiK  as  an  arraiij,H'n»ent  that  haves  his  predecessor 
without  tlie  solace  of  a  son  to  s.urilke  t<>  his  itiaiks.  In 
(,n!ir  tu  f;:vr  ni'.M'  wii^hi  U  liis  niiioiisiraiKc  he  emn- 
iiiilttii  smci.le  al  the  loiiil)  i.l  tlie  sovereign  whose  cause 
he  was  seeking  to  serve.  Do.,-,  ii-i  ilii-  iii.Hlnn  in-iaiice 
aliiui-t  Mit'lkr  to  r.  niliT  i  i.  ihlik  ilic  story  of  the  niailyr 
Chroniclers  of  whuiu  ue  have  siHikcii.' 

Sufpositus  liiifri  dolosa: 

said  Horace  to  Tollio.  wlun  the  latter  was  proposing  to 
write  the  lii-l.iry  of  the  tl:eii  reeeiit  n  \ ■ 'lution.  Nohmiy 
knows  hetter  than  tlu'  Cliine.^e  the  tre  i.  herons  tliinness 
of  the  crust  that  overlies  the  lava  of  a  dynastic  iruinion. 
With  a  vi.'W  t-  >,nian!iiiK'  ai^ain-t  the  pervert  in-;  iiitlnence 
of  fear  and  favnur,  they  avc.inlin^dy  wail  until  the  last 
scion  nf  an  imperial  house  has  ceased  to  reipn  h  -fore 
compilini,',  ..r  ratl:er  Ix'i  re  puh!  iani;,  tlie  histi  ry  ..f  a 
dynasty.  The  history  oi  the  Min^s  was  not  piil.lished 
until  after  ilie  accession  of  the  Manchus;  and  the  com- 
mission charged  with  its  preparation,  dev.itid  no  less 
than  fortv-six  years  to  die  task.  Official  histories  are 
alwavs  cted  In    collation   with   private  memoirs, 

which  only  wait  the  sunset  of  a  dynasty  to  come  forth  in 


THE  STUDY  OF  CHINESE  HISTORY  393 


countless  nutnt>cr<(  and  shed  f'.cir  glow-worm  light  on  the 
events  of  the  ptriiid. 

In  addition  to  tht  se  on!  nary  a  'mii.  ■  nu  iits,  t!  rt  exists 
an  extraorditiarv  provisinn  r^'  1  ;  fiu  •  >irt.-ai  oi 
history.  It  consists  in  thi  .i|ij>'.  c.  at  lone  intervals, 
of  sa>.;es  with  a  divine     •mii  rt  vi-i  tl     u  iials  of 

preceiiinL;  ri  iunries.  and  i  .  j    -    ip  tlie  du- ui    da>  book 
of  the  empire.    I^iur  ha^rt"  avi(K'ared  already,  viz.: — 
Confiu-'us,  it)  i.lic  I  '       Mill'      1:   1  ; 
Sze  .\la  I.  li'ieii.  in  ti:    .>nii  ceiitury,  U.    . ; 
Sze  Ma  Kuang,  in  the  nth  century,  a  d.  ; 
C  hu  I'litze,  a  een!tir\  later. 

Fo'  "  .■  advf.it  ol  the  tiflh,  ilie  world  is  now  on  tiptoe. 

Each  revision  reduces,  of  ct  'h-  cjii  uitiiy    i  ma- 

teria!; liiit,  at'ti  .  .ill  their  siftin^.  .  >!iil  f'  .ous  .u\ 
enonuuus  irreducihU  mass,  in  which  the  dead  past  is 
burie<l  rather  than  ilhistraied. 

The  hi-  ;il  .vnrlxs  ot"  the  first  of  these  great  etiitors, 
as  expounded  by  his  disciples,  extend  tn  (k)  huoks,  or 
about  volumes.  Those  ai  the  second,  to  I  JO  books. 
Those  of  the  tliird  reach  the  portentous  fif^ure  of  360. 
And  those  t  !  (he  last,  thoufjh  professing  to  be  an  abridg- 
ment, amount  to  55  books. 

The  twenty-four  dynastic  histories,  taken  together, 
fiH.i  up  the  treinendous  total  of  3,266  books,  or  1,633 
separate  volumes. 

This  is  sufficiently  appalling,  but  what  shall  we  say  of 
the  uiUains  !  uiidiKasied  ores  that  have  not  been  sub- 
jected to  the  ti.i  s  of  the  smelting  furnace?  It  may  iielp 
us  to  form  an  idea  of  the  extent  of  these  crude  treasures 
to  mention  that  the  history  of  the  last  short  reign  of  only 
thirteen  years  is  spreail  over  no  fewer  thrin  one  hundred 
and  tift\  volumes.  Then  there  are  collateral  histories  for 
that  period,  which  are  also  official,  such  as  that  of  the 


394  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

Taiping  rebellion  in  2ii  volumes;  that  of  the  Nienfei 

rcboriuu  ill  i6o  volumes;  anil  tlin.^e  of  the  three  several 
Mohamnicilan  rebellions  of  Kashgar,  Kansu,  and  Yiinnan, 
not  yet  finished,  but  certainly  far  more  voluminous.  If 
the  prececliiij;  reiyus  were  only  half  as  prolific  in  histori- 
cal writings,  the  productions  of  the  present  ilynasty  would 
alone  more  than  suffice  to  fill  the  library  of  the  sea-side 
genius,  to  say  nothing  of  the  twenty-four  preceding 
dynasties. 

Nor  is  this  all.  To  complete  the  Catalogue,  we  have 
still  to  add  topographical  histories  without  number.  Each 
of  the  nineteen  old  IVovimes  has  its  official  history  com- 
piled by  a  commission  presided  over  by  officers  of  the 
Hanlin.  Each  department  or  prefecture  has  likewise  its 
proper  history ;  ami  this  gives  us  200  more— not  volumes, 
but  works ;  while,  descending  to  cities  of  the  third  order, 
we  must  reckon  a  history  of  from  ten  to  twenty  volumes 
for  each  of  nearly  two  thousand  districts.  The  sum  total 
makes  a  quantity  so  vast  that  the  mind  can  no  more  grasp 
it  than  it  can  conceive  the  distances  to  the  fixed  stars. 
We  seek  in  vain  for  a  unit  of  measure,  if  the  manu- 
scripts of  the  .Mi  xandrian  hbrary  kept  the  fires  of  the 
Caliph  Omar  blazing  for  three  months,  how  long  might 
the  histories  of  China  supply  them  with  fuel!  lamer- 
lane  was  in  the  habit  of  building  jiyramids  of  the  skulls  of 
iiis  enemies,  flow  high  a  pyranuil,  we  may  ask,  might 
be  constructed  out  of  these  dry  bones  of  past  ages? 

In  the  prc.-cnce  of  these  enormous  accumulations,  the 
question  arises  what  estimate  arc  we  to  form  of  their 
value  ? 

Of  their  value  to  the  I  hinese  there  is  no  question. 
Their  existence  is  proof  of  the  esteem  in  which  they  are 
held;  and  the  manner  in  which  every  species  of  cc«n- 
position  bristles  with  historical  allusions  bears  witness  to 


TI     STUDY  OF  CHINESE  HISTORY  395 


the  influence  they  have  exerted  on  the  mind  of  the  Chi- 
nese. But  are  these  venerable  remains  of  any  value  to 
us?  If  so,  in  what  way  may  they  be  made  to  contribute 
to  the  literary  wealth  of  the  Western  world? 

In  forming  an  estimate,  we  must  not  for;j;et  that  our 
standard  of  v  due  in  the  criticism  of  such  works  differs 
as  widely  from  that  of  the  Chinese  as  a  golden  sovereign 
does  from  the  cheaj)  producliuns  of  the  native  mint.  Ours 
was  coined  and  stamped  for  us  by  no  meaner  hand  than 
that  of  Lord  Bacon,  who  defines  history  as  "  Philosophy 
teaching  by  e\;imi)le."  It  is  pliiloso])]iy,  not  science,  for 
its  data  are  too  indefinite  to  be  made  a  basis  for  scientific 
deductions.  Philosophy  lays  no  claim  to  absolute  cer- 
tainty, though  her  very  name  proclaims  her  a  searcher 
after  truth.  Her  first  ot)ject  is  to  learn;  her  second  to 
teach;  and  if,  in  Uie  domain  of  history,  she  is  able  to  draw 
lessons  from  the  past,  it  is  because  she  has  first  learned 
the  meaning  of  tliose  great  movements  which  she  pro- 
fesses to  expound. 

Judged  by  this  standard,  the  Chinese  have  chroniclers, 
but  not  hi-torians.  Their  chronicles  are  comjK)sed  with 
studied  elegance  and  abound  in  acute  criticism  of  char- 
acter and  events ;  but  the  whole  range  of  their  literature 
contains  nothing  that  can  he  called  a  Philosophy  of 
History.  They  have  no  Hegel,  who,  after  reconstructing 
the  universe,  applies  his  principles  to  explain  the  laws 
of  human  progress;  no  (ubbon  or  Montesquieu  to  trace 
the  decay  of  an  old  civilization  ;  no  duizot  or  Lccky  to 
sketch  the  rise  of  a  new  one.  They  have  not  even  a 
Thucidides  or  a  Tacitus,  who  can  follow  effects  up  to 
causes,  and  paint  the  panorama  of  an  epoch. 

The  reason  is  obvious.  Without  resorting  to  the  sup- 
position that  they  are  by  nature  deficient  in  the  philo- 
sophic faculty,  we  find  a  sufficient  explanation  of  the 


396  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


plienoi  icnon  in  the  faulty  model  set  for  them  by  the 
greatest  of  their  sages. 

With  them  Confucius,  not  Sze  Ma  Ch'ien,  is  the  Father 

of  History.  His  famous  Spring  and  Autumn  is  not  even 
a  )»i<ik  of  Annals.  It  is  a  diary  in  which  all  events,  great 
and  small,  are  strung  like  beads  on  a  calendar  of  days. 
This  method,  not  to  speak  of  the  extreme  conciseness  of 
his  ^tyle,  makes  it  difficult  for  his  reader  to  perceive  the 
connection  of  events.  Three  disciples  of  his  school  have 
crane  to  his  aid  with  commentaries ;  but  all  of  them  follow 
the  order  of  the  text,  chapter  and  verse.  ITis  continu- 
ators  have  done  the  same ;  and  s<  have  all  his  successors 
down  to  our  historiographers  of  the  Hanlin,  who  keep 
their  daily  journals  ant'  imagine  they  arc  writini?  history. 

To  have  so  many  pens  laboriously  employed  in  taking 
notes  is  a  good  way  to  collect  materials;  but  those  ma- 
terials require  a  different  kii  d  of  elaboration  from  any 
they  have  ever  received  at  the  hands  of  a  native  author 
before  they  become  History,  in  our  acceptation  of  the 
term. 

That  their  History  has  remaiined  in  the  rudimentary 
condition  in  which  it  began  its  career  is  one  more  instance, 
in  addition  to  many  others,  of  noble  arts  which  the  Chi- 
nese originated  in  ancient  times ;  and  which  remained 
ever  after  in  a  state  of  arrested  development. 

There  are  men,  says  Sir  Lyon  Playfair,  who  "cannot 
see  a  forest  for  the  trees  of  which  it  is  composed." 

So  the  Chinese  chronicler,  bent  on  classifying  all  oc- 
currences in  the  order  of  time,  fails  to  perceive  the  trend 
of  colossal  movements  that  sweep  over  whole  nations  and 
Innj^  centnries.  His  w^rk  in  keejiinij:  the  minutes  of  the 
day  is  History  only  in  the  sense  in  which  the  daily  noting 
of  the  stars  is  Astronomy.  Thousands  of  diligent  ob- 
servers had  recorded  their  observations  with  apparently 


THE  STUDY  Of  CHINESE  HISTORY  397 


fruitless  toil,  when  the  eye  of  Kepler,  sweeping  over  the 
mass  of  facts,  deduced  from  them  the  ellipticity  of  the 
planetary  orbits.  May  we  not  hope  that  some  master 
mind  will  yet  arise,  who  shall  be  capable  of  pointing 
out  tiic  reign  of  law  in  this  limbo  of  undijjested  facts? 

The  historian,  who  shall  do  this  for  China,  will  be  a 
native ;  but,  in  addition  to  the  culture  of  the  Hanlin,  he 
must  possess  the  training  of  a  Western  university.  The 
students  of  history,  trained  in  the  native  schools,  are 
all  near-sighted.  They  analyze,  with  more  than  micro- 
scopic penetration,  particular  events  and  personal  char- 
acter; but  they  are  utterly  incapable  of  broad  synthetic 
combinations. 

In  proof  of  this,  I  may  point  to  three  immense  move- 
ments, each  of  which  is  as  indispensable  to  the  under- 
standing of  the  present  condition  of  China  as  are  Kepler's 
three  laws  to  the  explanation  of  the  solar  system.  Yet 
no  native  writer  appears  to  have  grasped  the  siiruificance, 
or  even  formed  a  conception,  of  any  one  of  them.  They 
are: 

»•— The  conquest  of  China  by  the  Chinese; 
3-— The  conquest  of  China  by  the  Tartars; 
3-— The  struggle  between  the  centripetal  and  centrifu- 
gal forces  of  the  empire. 

To  the  mind  of  a  native,  the  assertion  that  China  has 

been  conqucrec!  by  the  Chinese  would  be  tantaiTiouiit  to 
that  venerable  item  of  political  news  that  "  the  Dutch 
have  taken  Holland."  To  him,  they  have  always  been  in 
possession,  and,  so  far  as  he  knows,  they  sprang  directlv 
from  the  soil.  Rut  the  eye  of  a  foreign  scholar,  trained 
trace  the  origin  of  nations,  perceives  at  a  glance  that  tlie 
Chinese  were  a  foreign  race,  who,  clothed  with  the  power 
of  a  higher  civilization,  undertook  the  conquest  of  the 


398  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

water-shed  of  eastern  Asia,  about  the  time  the  Aryan 
Hindus  undertook  that  of  the  southern  Teninsula.  He 
notes  the  first  seats  of  tlieir  power  along  the  banks  of 
the  Yellow  River,  indicating  that  they  came  from  the 
North-west,  and  followed  its  course  down  into  tlie  cen- 
tral plain.  Whence  thov  came,  he  may  not  be  able  to 
affirm  with  certainty ;  but  he  finds  two-thirds  of  the  em- 
pire, even  in  the  classic  age  of  Chou,  stiU  in  possession 
of  savage  tribes,  who  must  be  regarded  as  the  true 
autochthones. 

He  sees  these  gradually  absorbed  and  assimilated  by 
the  superior  race,  until  the  remnants  of  the  aborif,nnes  are 
driven  into  mountain  fastnesses,  where  they  still  main- 
tain their  independence,  and  where  the  conflict  of  ages  is 
still  going  on.  The  first  chapter  in  the  history  of  this 
conflict  is  found  in  the  brief  account  which  the  Shu  Chmg 
gives  us  of  the  subjugation  of  the  San  Miao,  "  The  three 
aboriginal  tribes,"  by  the  Emperor  Shun. 

The  last  is  not  vet  written ;  but  a  page  still  wet  with 
blood  records  the 'subjection  of  the  Miao  Tze  of  Kuei 
Chou,  and  the  extension  of  Japanese  sway  in  the  island  of 
Formosa.  Wbai  a  theme  for  the  pen  of  a  native  scholar, 
if  he  could  only  enlarge  the  range  of  his  mental  vision 
so  as  to  take  in  a  movement  of  such  magnitude! 

The  second  of  the  tliree  gr.at  movements  is,  in  its 
origin,  almost  co-eval  with  the  first,  and  runs  parallel 
with  it  through  all  the  ages  down  to  the  present  day.  To 
the  mind  of  a  native,  the  Tartar  coniiuest  suggests  only 
the  successful  invasion  of  the  Manchus.  the  now  domi- 
nant race.  To  the  wider  survey  of  a  western  thinker, 
it  signifies  a  persistent  attempt,  extending  through  thou- 
sands of  years,  made  by  barbarians  of  whatever  name  on 
the  North  of  China,  to  gain  possession  of  a  country  made 
rich  by  the  industry  of  its  civilized  inhabitanU. 


THE  STUDY  OF  CHINESE  HISTORY  399 


Its  first  stage  was  an  advance  into  the  interior,  in  771 

K.  r..  far  cnougli  to  destroy  the  western  capital,  near  the 
site  of  the  present  Hsi  An  Fu.  The  Emperor  and  liis 
consort  perishing  in  the  ruins,  the  successor  of  the  un- 
fortunate monarch  removed  his  court  eastward,  to  a 
safer  situation,  in  the  heart  of  the  Empire.  At  a  later 
period,  Lo  Yang,  the  eastern  capital,  was  also  sacked  by 
Tartars.  Still  later  (not  to  follow  the  fluctuations  of  the 
conflict),  when  the  northern  half  of  the  Empire  was 
over-run,  the  court  retired  from  the  banks  of  the  Huang 
Ho  to  those  of  the  \'ang  Tze  Chiang ;  whence  it  removed 
still  further  south,*  in  the  v.iin  hope  of  escaping  the 
Tartars,  wlio,  under  the  leadership  of  Kublai,  effected  for 
the  first  time  the  conquest  of  the  whole  Empire. 

After  a  brief  tenure,  they  lost  their  grand  prize,  but 
it  was  reconquered  by  the  Manchus;  and  for  two  cen- 
turies and  a  half  it  has  remained  in  their  possession. 

The  (ireat  Wall,  stretching  from  the  sea  to  the  desert 
of  Kansu,  is  a  monument  of  this  undying  struggle,  which, 
from  its  first  inception,  has  been  essentially  one  long  war, 
wUh  only  here  and  there  a  fitful  truce. 

The  successive  sackings  of  Kmne  by  Gaul  and  Vandal; 
the  conquest  of  Italy  by  IJarhanans  from  the  North;  and 
the  removal  i)f  the  capital  to  the  East,  are  parallels  that 
offer  themselves  to  a  European  student,  and  suggest  a 
law  in  the  tide  of  nations,  viz, — that  the  hungry  hordes  of 
the  North  manifest,  in  all  ages,  a  tendency  to  encroach  on 
opulent  regions  more  favored  by  the  sun. 

In  all  ages,  the  Tartar  invaders  have  yielded  to  the 
influence  of  a  higher  civilization;  but.  on  the  other 
hand,  tliev  have  made  a  deep  impression,  ethnolc^ically 
as  well  as  politically,  on  the  state  of  China. 

The  Chinese  have  treated  this  subject  only  in  a  frag- 
*  To  Hang  Chou. 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


mentary  waj  ;  but,  taken  as  a  whole,  in  its  philosophy 

and  its  pocl'ry.  tlic  conquest  of  China  by  the  Tartars 
wouUl  supply  the  Muse  oi  History  witli  another  o£  her 
noblest  llicmes. 

The  two  great  movements,  which  I  have  now  so  hastily 
sketclie.l.  ucre  coiUliets  of  races;  the  third  was  a  conflict 
of  principles,  l  he  contending  forces  were  those  of  feudal 
autonomy  and  centralization.  At  the  dawn  of  the  Chou 
dynasiv,  ii.a  to  p.  further  back  in  tlie  history,  an  able 
monarch  succeeded  in  holding  the  vassal  I'rinces  in  check; 
while,  under  his  weak  successors,  they  threw  off  all  but 
the  semblance  of  subjection.  Tliis  strug-Ie  for  power 
went  on  for  eight  centuries,  until  both  combatants  were 
overwhelmed  by  a  new  foe,  who  had  grown  strong  in 
conflict  with  tlie  Tartars  of  the  North ' 

In  tins  s;t;iial  event,  Chineje  historians  discern  noth- 
ing but  the  uuiniph  of  vulgar  ambition ;  and  they  paint 
its  author  m  the  darkest  color.;,  as  an  impious  tyrant  who 
burned  the  books  of  Confucius,  and  slaughtered  his  dis- 
ciples. For  such  unheard-of  cruelty,  they  find  no  better 
explanation  than  a  partiality  of  Taoism,  coupled  with 
a  desire  to  destroy  the  records  of  the  pa^t,  in  order  that 
he  might  appear  to  posterity  as  the  author  of  a  new  era. 
Not  one  of  them  has  understood  the  significance  of  Sliih 
HiuiH}^  Ti.  the  august  title  by  which  he  prnclaiuied  him- 
self the  ••  first  "  of  a  new  order  of  "  autocratic  sovereigns." 
N(3t  one  ..f  them  has  perceived  that  his  motive  for  burn- 
ing the  books  of  Confucius  was  to  obliterate  the  feudal 
.vsteni  from  the  memory  of  China;  and  that  he  cut  the 
ihrcats  of  the  Literati  to  make  sure  that  those  books  and 
their  political  doctrines  should  never  re-appear. 

Tin-  books  did  re-apnear :  Inn  the  feu.lal  system,  once 
buried  in  the  sepulchre  of  the  slaughtered  scholars,  has 
had  no  resurrection.   It  had  been  to  China  the  fruitful 


THE  STUDY  OF  CHINESE  HISTORY  401 


mother  of  ages  of  anarchy.    Since  then  she  has  gone 

tliroiiRrli  many  rcvohitioiis:  hut,  tlianks  to  tlie  j^eiiius  of 
Sliili  lluaiiij  Ti,  slic  has  wilucssoil  no  repetition  of  the 
sad  spectacle  of  a  family  of  States  waging  perpetual  war. 
His  s\-~tcni  of  centralizdl  power  remains  the  bond  of 
the  Empire;  and  the  title  of  Huang  Ti,  which  he  was  the 
"first"  to  assume,  still  survives  as  its  permanent 
expression. 

This  conflict,  between  the  centripetal  and  centrifugal 
foices,  forms  the  third  great  subject  *  which  the  old 
historians  have  not  comprehended,  and  which  waits  the 
advent  of  a  writer  ol  deeper  insight  and  more  com- 
prehensive grasi).  .May  not  some  future  Hallain  show 
the  world  that  Feudalism,  which  formed  such  a  con- 
spicuous stage  in  tlie  develoi)meiit  of  modern  Europe, 
has  played  an  eipially  prominent  part  in  the  History  of 
China? 

Is  it  objected  that,  unhappily  for  the  studv  'if  Chinese 
history,  its  theatre  is  too  remote  to  awaken  public  interest 
in  any  high  degree?  Eg\-pt  and  Babylon  are  remote  in 
one  sense,  but  they  are  not  altnrrether  alien.  Thev  are 
only  higher  up  on  the  stream  that  expands  into  the  broad 
current  of  our  western  civilization.  Ancient  India  is 
remote;  but  it  forms  a  jiart  of  the  same  ethnic  system  with 
ourselves,  and,  on  that  account,  appeals  powerfullv  to  the 
imagination  of  the  European.  Chinese  historj'  forms  a 
stream  apart,  which  has  not,  it  is  said,  in  any  way  affected 
the  state  of  the  western  world. 

Rut  is  it  true  that  the  two  streams  have  flowed  down 
throngli  the  tracts  of  time  in  complete  independence  of 
each  other?  .\re  t'.ey  not  like  those  ocean  currents 
which  bear  life  and  beauty  respectively  to  tlie  Eastern 
shores  of  the  Atlantic,  and  to  those  of  the  Pacific?  The 
*  The  following  chapters  throw  light  on  two  of  them. 


40X 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


Gulf-stream  and  the  Kurosiwo,  though  flowing  through 

opposite-  hemispheres,  arc  not  ituhtTercnt  to  each  Other. 
They  are  connected  l)y  the  pulsations  of  a  common  tide. 
So  the  civilizations  of  China  and  Europe,  however  widely 
separated,  have  cacli  derived  fnnn  the  other  influences  as 
real,  though  occult,  as  those  that  throb  in  the  bosom  of 
the  ocean.  To  discover  their  points  of  contact,  and  to 
exhibit  tlie  proofs  of  mutual  reaction,  arc  among  the 
most  interesting  problems  offered  to  the  student  of 
Chinese  history. 

That  the  mutual  influence  of  the  two  civilizations  will 
in  the  future  he  far  greater  than  it  has  ever  been  in  the 
past,  it  is  easy  to  foresee.  When  China,  developing  the 
resources  of  her  magnilumi  domain,  and  clothing  her- 
self with  the  i)anoply  of  modern  science,  becomes,  as  she 
must  in  tiic  lapse  of  a  century  or  two,  one  of  the  three  or 
four  great  powers  that  divide  the  dominion  of  the  globe, 
think  you  tliat  the  world  will  continue  to  be  indifferent 
to  the  past  of  her  history?  Not  merely  will  some  knowl- 
edge of  her  history  be  deemed  indispensable  to  a  liberal 
education;— while  T  am  in  the  spirit  of  prophecy,  I  may 
well  go  on  to  predict  that  her  language  and  literature 
will  be  studied  in  all  our  Universities. 

But  why  should  the  degree  of  our  interest  in  any  tield 
of  intellectual  investigation  be  measured  by  the  extent 
of  our  commercial  intercourse?  If  the  Chinese,  instead 
of  living  on  a  globe,  the  dominion  of  which  they  are 
certain  to  dispute  with  our  posterity,— were  looking 
serenely  down  upon  us  from  the  surface  of  the  moon, 
would  that  be  any  reason  why  we  should  feel  no  concern 
for  tlicir  t'ortmu  s':'  If.  by  m^an';  of  ■^omo  kind  of  sclcno- 
i^nipli  vet  to  he  invented,  the  moon  could  convey  to  us  the 
lessons  of  experience  evolved  by  such  a  people  in  the 


THE  STUDY  OF  CHINESE  HISTORY  403 


coiirsi'  of  tlicir  existence,  \vi>iil<I  she  net  lie  giving  us 
something  more  substantial  than  moon-shine? 
Of  history  it  may  be  said,  as  of  fame — 

"  All  that  we  know  of  it,  begins  and  ends 
In  the  small  circle  of  our  foes  and  friends." 

To  men  of  science,  however,  a  well  authenticated  sta- 
tistical history  oupht  to  be  welcome,  even  if  it  came 
from  the  remotest  limb  of  the  l^^niverse.  The  archives 
of  China  <lo  not  indeed  supply  us  with  tabular  statements, 
such  as  would  satisfy  the  demands  of  Buckle  and  Quatre- 
fages,  but  they  grive  us  the  nearest  approach  to  these  that 
it  is  possible  to  obtain  from  distant  periods  of  time. 

In  our  moilem  observatories,  the  sun  is  made  to  take 
his  daily  photograph!  If  we  possessed  an  unbrf)ken 
series  of  su'-h  pictures,  extendinpf  back  for  some  thou- 
sands of  years,  what  an  invaluable  aid  it  would  afford 
towards  ascertaining  the  laws  that  prevail  in  that  far-off 
world!  Now,  to  the  Chinese  chronicler,  the  emperor  is 
the  sun.  and  he  has  no  other  object  in  writinp  than  to  pivc 
us  his  master's  daily  picture.  Happily,  other  subjects  are 
brouj^ht  in  as  accessories  that  arc  of  more  interest  to  us 
than  the  person  of  the  sovereign.  The  territory  is  de- 
scribed as  his  hereditary  or  acquired  estate ;  the  people 
come  into  view  as  his  praedial  slaves ;  the  signs  of  heaven, 
— suu-spots.  star-showers,  and  eclipses,  all  so  precious  to 
the  man  of  science, — are  recorded  as  shadows  on  the  dial 
of  imperial  destiny.  Casting  a  hasty  glance  back  over  the 
long:  concatoiiation.  \vc  arc  struck  by  the  fact  that  Chi- 
nese society  is  far  from  presenting  an  aspect  of  change- 
less uniformity.  Nor  have  its  changes  been  as  monoto- 
nous as  those  registered  by  our  sea-side  watcher.  The 


404  THE  LORE  Oi  CATHAY 


men  have  not  always  wi  in  ilu  liald  badge  <>f  subjec- 
tion to  a  f()rii.t;n  yoke;  nur  luivi-  tlic  woinon.  from  time 
iiiinii'iuorial,  liol)l>k(l  about  un  crippitil  feet.  Time  was 
when  the  gods,  that  greet  us  at  every  corner,  had  not 
yet  made  tlu'ir  ailvi'iit ;  wlun  Ix'oks.  ink,  and  iiajjiT,  were 
unknown  (but  our  historian.--  wi  re  even  then  lakmg  notes, 
for  it  is  they  that  tell  us)  ;  and  when  China  was  confined 
to  a  Mii.ill  ;mi;le  of  tlie  present  etiii)irr,  tin-  rest  !)einj4 
occupied  by  savage  races.  In  those  primitive  days,  even 
the  face  of  nature  was  different,  The  hills  were  covered 
witli  forest,  the  ]>lains  with  jnn!j;le.  and  the  lowlands 
with  reedy  marshes  abounding  in  ferocious  beasts. 

Numerous  as  have  been  the  changes  through  which 
the  Chinese  peoiile  have  i)assed,  tbey  have  not  been 
always  tnadiiiur  in  a  vicious  r'rclc.  History  shows  tliem 
to  have  made  a  gemral,  if  not  a  regular,  advance  in  all 
that  constitutes  the  greatness  of  a  people;  so  that,  in 
the  7'')tli  evcle  of  their  chronology,  their  domain  is  more 
extended,  their  numi)ers  greater,  and  their  intelligence 
higher,  than  at  any  preceding  epoch  in  the  forty  centuries 
of  their  national  existence. 

We  shall  find  too  that  their  progress  through  the  ages 
has  been,  amid  all  their  fluctuations,  confined  within  the 
lines  of  a  fixed  and  well-defm  i!  ^"oial  organization.  In 
the  .state,  a  jure  divitui  monarchy  has,  in  all  ages,  formed 
the  nucleus  of  the  government;  and  the  supremacy  of 
letters  has  been  secured  1i\  ni.dsitii^^  IcirtiiuL;  the  jiassport 
to  office.  In  the  family,  ilie  kindred  principles  of  im- 
limited  subjection  to  living  parents,  and  of  devout  worship 
to  dead  ancestors,  appear  of  equal  antiquity.  These  four 
are  the  corner-stones  on  which  the  social  fabric  reposes  at 
the  present  day. 

To  those  who  have  the  language  and  the  leisure  to 
enable  them  to  explore  its  original  sources,  I  would  com- 


THR  STUDY  OF  CHINESE  HISTORY  405 


meml  tlic  study  of  Chinese  History  as  alike  attractive 

anil  protilaljk'.  W'itli  tlKsc  two  coiiditiDiis,  \vc  liavi'  ac- 
cess to  masses  ot  hisiuric  lure,  svliicli  wc  may  coinpare, 
not  with  virgin  inines.  but  with  those  heaps  of  silver  slag 
ktt  Ijv  till'  (ilcl  (liciks  at  tlu'  iniiu-.  i.aiirium,  iinm 
winch  the  (.icrmaiis  arc  now  extracting  quantities  of  the 
precious  metal  that  escaped  the  cruder  metluHls  of  the 
ancients.  Or,  to  vary  the  figure,  we  inav  liken  tluiii  to 
the  walls  uf  the  Lolisseum,  out  of  which  the  niedlieval 
pontiffs  quarried  stones  to  Imikl  the  churches  of  Rome 
But  a  history  worthy  of  the  grandeur  of  the  subject  can- 
not be  proilmed  otherwise  than  by  the  combined  labors 
of  many  scholars. 

NOTE 

A  BRIEF  CHRONOLOGY  OF  THE  LEADIKG  DYNASTIES  Will 

hclj)  to  elucidate  the  references  in  tlii-  and  the  following 
chapters.  .\  sketch  of  history  may  be  found  in  Cycle  of 
Cathay,  pp.  251-264. 

1.  I'eriod  of  the  Imm  Rulers,  n.  c.  2852-2205.  Society 
emerges  from  harharism.  Letters  are  invented,  followed 
by  arithmetic  and  chronology. 

The  last  two  rulers,  Yan  and  Shun,  are  models  of  rverv 
princely  virtue.  Hoinmated  by  love  of  the  jicnpl.  ,  tach 
rejects  his  own  son  as  unworthy  r  ,  ign,  ami  adopts  a 
capable  successor.  This  is  the  golden  age,  when  the 
interests  of  the  jieople  rose  above  those  of  the  reigning 
house.    The  events  of  this  period  are  largely  legendary. 

2.  The  H  1  lynasty,  b.  c.  2205-1766.  A  calendar  of 
days  and  rites  has  come  down  from  this  epoch  which 
shows  that  so.  ial  and  political  institutions  were  liccoming 
crystallized  into  permanent  forms.  The  whole  of  China 
had  previously  been  occupied  by  savage  tribes;  but  the 


4o6  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


northern  half  was  now  lnnught  under  the  sway  i  :  the 
Chinese  rule.  Hsia  sif^^nifies  siHnmer;  and  Gtina  is  still 
called  tl"  "  su'i.iiHT  ktir  I  ' 

3.  Th<.  .na^iv  of  Sli  1^,  i;  c.  17O6-I122.  Shai  • 
nifies  mcr  i>am  h  pn  .jts  indicates  that  wi  growing 
refinement  "f  n;:  uneri*.  lummcrce  became  a  .  n  iiit  imus 
f.K-tor  i  ..i  'tfe.  i  hf  tmpire  was  subdivi<l'  il  am  tnjj 
vassal  -Mtt  iii  I  ilic  1  udai  ^ytcm  of  govt-;  atii  took 
definite   l  an 

4.  ri  •    Chuii    (round    or  complete)   dyn    ty.   h  c. 

1122-255.  Litn.itu.'  riw.  aiid  sages  appeared,  v  -n- 
fucius  was  lM»rn  k.      551   ami  Lautze,  founder  of  the 

i  ani^t  slIiuoI  ,1  i  Ic  m'  ■  r.  (  ivilization,  as  the  i  'uiiese 
think,  then  attained  it-  ,ne,  and  to  this  day  iliey  remain 
ui.  "er  the  dcsnination  tf  the  rul*-*  a'.d  ideals  of  that 
periiwl. 

5.  The  Ch'in  dynasty,  b.  c.  ^55-206.  The  Ch'ins  swept 
away  the  vassal  States,  unified  the  lanjnre  and  gavi  t 
the  name  of  Clmia.  The  Great  Walt  is  their  enduring 
monument;  l>ut  thiv  !  the  execration  of  all  ages 
by  burning  Uic  b<«  ks  oi  C<  lucius  and  slaughtering  his 
followers. 

6.  The  Han  dynasty       c.  2(/  \.  d.  220.    Marked  '  , 
resurrection  of  CoMfuc  .m  Ixjoks  and  revival  of  -tiers; 
introduction  of  Buddhism  an<l  completion  of  the  tr 
reHpions ;  uIm)  1)\    xUnsit)!!    !  Hsf  Empirt  lo  tin 

of  China  Proper  In  honor  i>i  these  brilisant  acii  e- 
nients,  the  people  call  themselves  the  "  Sons  of  H.t 

7.  Numerous  par'  il    r  short-liv  d  dynasties,  .\ 
18.    A  time  of  Uiissiun,  war      1  anarchy;  tho 
enturies  are  not  distinguished    ,  an>     n  pic u^u  ,tcj, 

m  the  march  of  progress.  Durmp  th-  .^eater  oar  "he 
tendency  was  to  rdapse  into  barbarism.    The  war  f 


THE  s  rr  DY  OF  CHINESE  HISTORY  407 

uitii  \'.  till  ihi-  jKi  ntl  opens,  wcr-: 
■     i''  '  "t"  was  K  iiaiig  Fu,  tl    Q<  \  of  War. 

•as  I  titly  II  r  In  rui  .f^f 

.  1  11.  I  na.s  of  T'aiij^.  u  sxH-yos.  I  ii  letters,  the 
•'^        '  "'I  for  fli    rise  uf  tli    dr  ma  and  the 

'">^        '  i  i-i' n    \ca(Ifniy,  ,h|  i>  >,till 

''^i'i  t.  ntion  of  priniiii;,',  ami  tin- 

■       •  ■    '      ••      ii   unsteady  liolii  on  tin  ^uiitli- 
;        " '  .  uirnit  il  so  that  the        -le  of 

'l»at  i      .1)  ,  to  tlMs  day  the  '    i   1  of 

t'anjr.' 

'  Dv!      ics,"  A.  D.  907-960. 

"  a        -j-H.    Xnioij  for  the 

'     iiliiu,>,  j.liy ;  anu    ic  fixing  ot  the  inter- 
'<  t^u<  onfiician  classics.    A  schon!  of  acute 

ni-  ;iniu;ii,'  w  ith  Cliao  and  Clian .  iiinates 

hail  a  century  in  Lhu  Initze.  w.io  is    \o  the 
'    r      K     of  Chinese  Owmentatnrs.   Thc^  sh  signs 
i.f  lin     ig  u'lt  ihe  stimiihis  ,,f  Inch'.iti  iIkhijtI!  irline 
1  anything  fon  ign.    They  iiavc  hocoi;  ^nd- 
rtho»io.v    in  IkhU  their  philosophy  an.  r- 
V     \  laird  thing  was  added  to  cm  e 
;  a       rity,  viz.:  the  rcors^aiii/.iti' in  .  .  d 
ai.iiii.ftion  system  on  its  procnt  hasis. 
*  N'l!. u   or  Mongol  dynasty,  a.  d.  1260-1368. 
1 rs.  wli.   from  time  to  time  liad  seized  portions  of 
.ilia,     w  esialuislicd  tluir  sway  over  the  wliule  empire 
iiider  the  famous  Kuhlai  Khan.    Under  his  reign  the 
'\  1    rian.  Marco  ]\>]o,  li^-  '  in  China  and  gave  the 
-riiest  detailed  descriptic*..  uf  tlie  country,  calling  it 
'  >v,  as  the  Mongols  do. 

Til,  Mitii;  dynasty.  A.  I).         ir)44.  This  period  is 
reiiiarkahle  for  any  intellectual  »tK>vement  except  the 


ll  a 
I 


4og  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

steady  growth  of  an  already  enormous  literature,  the 
compilation  of  encyclop«dias  and  the  codification  of  the 

Laws.  . 

1 3  The  l  a  Ch  ing  or  Great  Pure  Dynasty.  A.  D.  It>44  to 
the  present  time.  The  Manchu  Tartars,  a  small  tnbe  in 
Liaolu„^^  gradually  got  possession  of  that  outlying  col- 
ony and  Willi  it  acquired  the  civilization  of  China.  I  he 
Mings  having  succumbed  to  internal  revolt,  tluy  w.vo 
invited  to  aid  in  restoring  order,  and  did  so  by  seating 
their  own  princes  on  the  throne. 

Rivalling  the  house  of  Kublai  in  the  extent  of  their 
dominions,  tl.ey  have  surpassed  all  preceding  dynasties 
in  the  al.ilitv  and  merit  of  tlv  rulers  they  have  given  the 
celestial  empire.  Theirs  has  been,  on  the  whole  the 
wisest  government  that  Cliina  has  ever  enjoyed.  Hovv 
much  Ir.ngcr  their  lease  of  power  has  to  run  must  depend 
on  the  degree  to  which  they  assimilate  the  principles,  arts 
and  methods  of  Western  Christen.lom.  n'';-""  tl^- 
\lanchus  Christianitv  has  acpiired  a  firm  foothold  m 
China,  and  science,  which  came  with  it.  is  a  powerful 
auxiliary  in  carrying  forward  the  intellectual  conquest. 


XXI 


THE  TARTARS  IN  ANCIENT  CHINA  * 

IHE  Great  Wall,  wliicli  forms  the  northern  bound- 


ary of  China  proper,  tells  of  a  conflict  of  races. 


Extending  for  fifteen  hundred  miles  along  the 
verge  of  the  Mongolian  plateau,  it  presents  itself  to  the 
mind  as  a  geographical  feature,  boldly  marked  on  the 
surface  of  the  globe.  Winding  like  a  huge  serpent  over 
the  crests  of  the  mountains,  it  seems  (to  adapt  the  words 
of  Emerson)  as  if — 

"  O'er  China's  Great  Wall  '  -nt  the  sky 
As  on  its  friend  with  kindred  eye, 
And  granted  it  an  equal  date 
With  Andes  and  with  Ararat" 

It  divides  two  stages  of  civilization  to-day,  as  it  did  two 

thousand  years  ago.  On  one  side  are  vast  plains  un- 
broken by  the  plough,  and  occupied  only  by  tribes  of 
wandering  nomads;  on  the  other  are  fields  and  gardens, 
rich  with  the  products  of  agricultural  industry.  Between 
the  two,  a  state  of  perpetual  hostility  is  inevitable,  unless 
restrained  by  the  power  of  some  overshadowing  govern- 
ment. This  natural  antagonism  has  never  failed  to  show 
itself  at  every  point  of  contact,  the  world  over.  Schiller 

*The  name  Tartar  is  incapable  of  precise  definition  It  is 
applied  in  a  general  sense  to  all  the  wandering  tribes  of  the 
North  and  West. 


409 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


hints — not  in  his  poems,  but  in  a  course  of  historical 
lectures— that  this  emlkss  strife  of  sheplienl  and  culti- 
vator was  foreshadowed  in  the  conthct  of  Cain  ami  Abel. 
History,  unhappily,  supplies  us  with  an  abundance  of 
illustrations.  Egypt  fell  a  prey  to  tlie  shepherd  kings; 
and  in  Asia,  as  in  luirt>i)e,  t!ie  inhospitable  North  has 
always  been  leady  to  disgorge  us  predatory  hordes  on 
lands  more  favored  by  the  sun. 

The  Chinese  of  the  border  provinces  were  in  the 
earlier  ages  compelled  to  divide  their  time  between  war 
and  work,  under  pain  of  losing  tli.^  fruits  of  their  labors. 
Like  the  pioneers  uf  tlie  We-tern  rontinent,  they  never 
allowed  themselves  to  be  parted  from  their  defensive 
weapons,  and  enjoyed  life  itself  only  at  the  price  of  per- 
petual vigilance.  E.xperience  pnned  that  a  hue  of  mili- 
tary posts,  no  matter  how  closely  they  might  be  linked 
together,  afforded  no  adequate  security  against  the 
incursions  of  homeless  waiulerers.  The  Creat  Wall  was 
built,  not  as  a  substitute  for  such  posts,  but  as  a  supple- 
ment to  them.  That  it  seryed  its  end,  there  can  be  no 
reasonable  doubt.  So  efTectually  indeed  did  it  protect 
the  peaceful  tillers  of  the  soil,  that  an  ancient  saying 
describes  it  as  the  ruin  of  one  generation  and  the  salva- 
tion of  thousands. 

From  time  to  time,  however,  the  si)irit  of  rapine,  swell- 
ing into  the  lust  of  conquest,  has  swept  over  the  huge 
barrier,  as  an  earthquaKe  wave  sweeps  over  the  artificial 
defenses  of  a  seai)ort — or  found  means  to  open  its  gates. 
Twice  has  the  whole  of  China  succumbed  to  a  flood  of 
extra-mural  invaders: — The  Mongds,  under  Genghis 
Khan,  were  aiiled  in  |ia>-.ing  tlie  fireat  Wall  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Shan  si  liy  the  treachery  of  Alakush,  a  Tartar 
chief,  whose  duty  it  was  to  defend  it;  and  the  Manchus, 
who  are  now  in  possession  of  the  throne,  entered  at  its 


THE  TARTARS  IN  ANCIENT  CHINA  411 


eastern  extremity,  on  the  invitation  of  Wu  San  Kuei,  a 
Chinese  general,  who  sought  their  aid  against  a  rebel  who 
had  subverted  tlie  throne  of  the  Mings. 

Besides  the  three  and  a  half  centuries  of  Tartar 
domination  under  these  two  great  dynasties,  we  find,  prior 
to  tlie  first  of  tlieni,  three  periods  of  partial  conquest. 
From  907  to  1234  a.  d..  a  large  portion  of  the  northern 
bell  of  i)rovinccs  passed  successively  under  the  sway  of 
the  Chi  Tan  and  Xu  Chen*  Tartar;  fn.iti  .^xr,  to  532, 
an  extensive  region  was  subjected  to  tiie  lartar  hordes 
of  Topa,  under  the  dynastic  title  of  Pei  Wei.    How  or 
where  these  invaders  passed  the  barrier,  it  is  not  w^vh 
while  to  inquire    The  foregoing  examples  show  that,  in  a 
time  of  anarchy,  some  friend  or  ally  can  always  be  found 
to  open  the  gates.    C//«;;-  cliili  ch-ar^  clriiio^  says  a 
Chinese  proverb.  "  Union  of  hearts  is  the  best  bulwark." 
Without  exaggerating  the  strength  of  the  Great  Wall, 
which,  through  a  large  ])art  of  its  extent,  is  far  from 
being  the  imposing  structure  which  we  see  in  the  vicinity 
of  Peking,  we  may  still  affirm,  in  the  light  of  history, 
that  had  it  been  backed  by  forces  untainted  by  treason 
and  unweakened  by  faction,  it  might  have  provetl  suffi- 
cient to  shield  the  country  from  conquest.  Wanting 
these  conditions,  the  wall  was  powerless  for  defense;  and, 
notwithstanding  its  watch  towers  and  garrisons,  we  havJ 
before  us  the  astounding  fact  that  the  Ciiinese  of  the 
northern  provinces  have  passed  seven,  out  of  the  last 
fifteen  centuries,  under  the  yoke  of  Tartar  conquerors. 

Ascending  the  stream  of  history  to  the  dynasty  of 
Han,  which  ruled  China  frcwn  202  b.  c.  to  220  a.  d.,  i.  e., 
for  more  than  four  centuries,  we  find  ourselves  in  prea- 

♦  No  Chen  or  Ju  Chih— also  called  Chin  Tartars.    The  Man 
chus  claim  them  as  their  aiice>tors.  the  reigning  house  having 
WwcAin  (fdd)  for  its  family  name. 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


ence  of  tlic  saiiu-  cmilii  i  llu"  names  of  the  opiwsing 
])arti»s  an-  o1kiiijl;i d  ;  hut  ilic  parties  remain,  and  tlie  war 
gut  s  un.  I'Ik-  iiiipirc  is  not  conquered  by  the  foreign  foe ; 
but  it 's  kept  in  a  state  of  perpetual  terror,  by  an  assem- 
blage of  powerful  tril)<'s  who  bear  tlie  n illi-i'tivc  name  <if 
Hsiang  \u.  lirctschucider  says  they  were  Mongols 
nomine  mntato ;  Howorth,  in  his  learned  History  of  the 
Mon^U'ls.  i)ronouiK-es  tlK-iu  'i'urks,  or  more  propi-rly  Tur- 
comans, the  ancestors  of  tbe  present  occupants  of  Khiva, 
Bokhara,  and  Constantinople.  From  the  resemblance  of 
this  name  to  Hiiiuii,  tluv  were  formerlv  sujiposcd  to  be 
the  progenitors  of  the  Mag>ars.  So  strong  indeed  was 
this  conviction  that,  a  gnod  many  years  ago,  a  follower  of 
Louis  Kossuth  went  to  t  hina  in  search  of  bis  "  kindred 
according  to  tlic  Hcsh  ;  "  actuated  apjiarently  by  the  hope 
of  inducing  tbeiii  to  repeat  the  invasion  of  Europe,  and 
deliver  their  brethren  from  the  yok-  of  the  Hapsburgs  I 

The  numerous  trilas  occupying  the  vast  region  ex- 
tending from  Lake  lialkash  to  the  mouth  of  the  Amur — 
diverse  in  language,  but  similar  in  nomadic  habits — were 
in  the  Han  period  combiiud  ut:dcr  the  lugomony  of  the 
Hsiang  Nu,  forming  a  confederation,  or  an  empire,  rather 
than  a  single  state.  The  chief  was  styled  in  his  own  lan- 
guage Shan  Vu.  a  word  which  the  Chinese  historians  ex- 
plain as  equivalent  to  Huang  Ti;  and  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  liauglu\  emperors  of  the  family  of  Han 
were  cnmi)elled  to  accord  the  sacred  title  to  their  barbar- 
ous rivals.  In  recent  times,  their  -uccessors  (more  prop- 
erly successors  of  the  Shan  Yu)  hav  hesitated  to  concede 
it  to  the  sovereign  of  at  least  one  European  empire. 
During  the  negotiation  of  thi'  .Vtistro-Hmi^arian  treaty, 
the  Ciiinesf  Ministers  objected  .so  strciuiousl)  to  the  as- 
sumption of  Huang  Ti,  that  the  heir  to  a  long  line  of 
Kaisers  had  to  content  himself  with  the  first  syllable  of 


THE  TARTARS  IN  ANCIENT  CHINA  413 

the  title,  on  the  principle  that  "  half  a  loaf  is  better  than 
tin  hroad."  TIad  his  minister  boon  well  versed  in  Chinese 
history  what  an  advantage  be  nrglit  have  gained!  F(ir, 
in  China,  a  precedent  is  good  for  more  than  two  thousand 
years;  and  the  supposed  connection  of  the  Huns  and 
Hsiang  Nu,  though  not  admitted  by  ethnology,  is,  or  was, 
sufficiently  reliable  for  the  purposes  of  diplomacy. 

During  the  Han  and  succeeding  dynasties,  the  Hsiang 
Nu  were  held  in  duek  mostly  by  force  of  arms;  but 
the  weaker  emperors,  like  those  of  Rome,  were  accus- 
tomed to  send  their  sisters  and  daughters  across  the 
frontier,  instead  of  ginerals;  flattering  the  vanity  of  the 
barbarians,  and  replacing  military  armaments  bv  the 
sentimentalities  of  family  alliance.    The  incidents  con- 
nectid  with  these  transactions  have  supplie<l  rich  ma- 
terials for  poetry  and  romance.    .\  [xipular  trageily  is 
founded  on  the  fortunes  of  Cliao  Chun,  one  of  the  many 
fair  ladies  who  were  offered  as  victims  to  preserve  the 
peace  of  the  bonlers.    The  Klian  of  Tartary,  bearing  of 
her  beauty,  demantled  her  in  marriage.    The  Emperor 
refused  to  surrender  the  chief  jewel  of  his  harem ;  so  the 
Klian  invaded  China  with  an  ovcrwbelming  force,  but 
he  retired  to  his  own  dominions  when  the  ladv  was  sent 
to  hh  camp.    Arrived  at  the  banks  of  the  Amur,  she 
threw  herself  into  is  dark  waters,  rather  than  endure 
a  life  of  exile  at  a  barbarian  court.    The  wars  of  tbo'M> 
times  woiilJ  furnish  materials  for  a  thrilling  history. 
The  battle-ground  was  sometimes  on  the  south  of  the 
Great  Wall,  but  generally  in  the  steppes  and  deserts 
beycmd. 

As  illustrations  of  the  varying  fortunes  attending  the 

wars  of  the  Hans  and  the  IMang  Xti,  we  may  mention 
the  names  of  Li  Kuang.  Li  Ling,  Sze  Ma  Ch'ien,  and  Su 
Wu.   The  first  of  these  led  the  armies  of  his  sovereign 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


against  the  Hsiang  Nii  f"r  many  years,  in  tin-  latter  part 
of  llie  second  aniury  (.  lie  fiad.  it  is  sai.l,  come  off 
victorious  in  seventy  battles,  when,  in  a  tinal  conflict, 
disappointe*!  in  his  expectation  of  capturn^  the  Khan, 
he  committal  suici.K  ..n  t!u-  fiel,i  »  1>a:  \  thous,'h.  if  wc 
mav  believe  tlie  recor  .  that  battle  wat-^  also  victory. 
This  gives  us  a  i:lnn].se  ..f  the  style  of  Hsiang  Nn  war- 
fare. They  wen  like  the  I'arthians,  '  most  to  be  dreadeil 
when  in  tliiiht."  That  a  C.eneral,  contending  with  such 
a  foe,  should  destroy  himself  from  chagrin  at  the  results 
of  his  seventy-first  victory.  atYnrds  us  a  fair  criterion  for 
estimating  the  value  of  the  other  seventy. 

Li  Ling,  the  son  (or  grandson)  of  the  ill-fated  Li 
Kuang,  appears  to  have  been  bom  under  still  Uss 
auspicious  star-..  Appointed  to  succeed  his  father,  he 
sutfered  himself  to  pursue  the  Hying  enemy  too  hotly, 
when,  falling  into  an  ambuscade,  his  vanguard,  consisting 
of  a  division  of  five  tliousand  men.  was  cut  to  pieces 
he  f' ire  the  main  Iwdy  could  come  to  the  rescue.  Li  Ling, 
with  a  few  survivors,  surrendered  at  discretion.  His 
life  was  spare<l ;  but,  to  take  his  own  description,  it  was 
little  better  th.m  ;i  livin:<  death.  In  ad<lition  to  the  priva- 
tions incidint  to  a  state  of  captivity  among  savage  foes, 
he  had  the  bitter  reflection  that,  on  account  of  his  sup- 
poseil  treaclurv,  hi'-  nearer  relations  had  all  been  i)Ut  to 
death;  and  that  a  noble  friend,  who  had  guaranteed 
his  fidelity,  had  been  subjected  to  an  ignominious 
punishment. 

That  noble  friend  was  no  other  than  the  great  historian, 
Sze  Ma  Ch'ien.  Required  by  a  cruel  decree  to  pay  the 
forfeit  of  Li  Ling's  alleged  treachery,  the  historian  cho.se 
to  si'bmit  to  a  disgraceful  mutilation,*  rather  than  lose 
his  life;  m  t.  as  he  himself  says,  that  he  held  life  dear 

*  He  had,  however,  become  a  father  prior  to  this  disgrace. 


THE  TARTARS  IN  ANCIENT  CHINA  415 


or  feared  death,  but  solely  to  gain  a  few  years  for  the 

completion  of  his  life  task,  a  debt  which  he  owed  to 
posterity,    lie  hved  to  place  the  last  stone  on  his 
imperishable  monument ;  and  for  twenty  centuries  h' 
had  among  his  countrymen  a  name  "  l»tter  than  that,  v 
sons  and  of  daughters." 

Su  Wu,  the  last  of  the  four  unfortunates,  was  a  diplo- 
matic envoy,  flavinj-,  while  at  the  court  of  the  Grand 
Khan,  attempted  by  undiplomatic  means  to  compass  the 
destruction  of  an  enemy,  he  was  thrown  into  prison,  and 
detained  in  cai)tivity  for  nineteen  years.  A  tender  poem 
is  extant,  which  he  addressed  to  iiis  wife  on  parting,  at 
the  commencement  of  his  perilous  mission.  Whether  she 
survived  to  welcome  his  return,  we  are  not  informed ;  but, 
in  that  case,  slie  must  have  died  with  grief,  to  see  him 
accompanieil  by  a  Tartar  wife. 

We  cannot  pause  longer  among  the  romantic  episodes 
s.  thickly  .scattered  throtigli  the  literature  of  the  Hans. 
We  must  travel  back  another  thousand  years,  to  arrive  at 
the  last  and  the  principal  division  of  our  subject, — the 
Tartai  Tribes  in  Ancient  China. 

W  e  fuid  ourselves  at  the  rise  of  the  third  dvnasiv,  the 
famous  dynasty  of  Chou,  which  occupied  the  throne  for 
over  eiglit  hundred  years  (iijj  n.  c.  to  255  u.  c).  We 
are  at  the  dawn  of  letters;  at  the  dividing  line  which  se|)a- 
rates  the  legendary  from  the  historical  period.  The  (ireat 
Wall  has  no  existence,  but  the  hostile  tribes  are  there; — 
not  Manchu  or  Mongol,  not  Hsiang  Nu,  Htii  Ku,  or  T'u 
Chiieh,  l)ut  the  ancestors  of  all  of  them,  under  different 
names,  hovering,  like  birds  of  prey,  on  the  unprotected 
frontiers  of  a  rich  and  tempting  country.  At  this  epoch, 
the  Chinese  peo])le,  who  had  originated  somewhere  in 
Central  Asia,  were  few  in  numlwr.  and  occupied  a  terri- 
tory of  comparatively  limited  extent.    They  were  dis- 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


tinj,'uit.licd  from  thiir  neighbors  chiefly  by  a  knowledge  of 
letters,  and  by  the  possession  of  a  higher  ctvilizatinii. 
I'Ms  im-ipiciii  ciihun-  gave  them  an  immense  advantage 
uver  tlK'  hariiaiwii:,  tribes  who  surrounded  them  on  every 
side  and  opposed  their  progress.  These  tribes  arc 
grouped  unckT  several  cuniprclicnsivc  terms: — tliuse  on 
the  east  arc  callfd  \  \ ;  those  on  the  nortii,  Ti ;  those  on  the 
west,  Jung  or  Ch  iang;  and  those  on  the  south,  Man. 
The  original  sense  of  llase  names  as  expressed  in  picture 
writing,  seems  to  be  as  follows: — The  Yi  were  famous 
archers,  and  were  so  called  from  their  great  bows."  The 
northeriurs  used  dogs  in  hunting  and  herding,  and  de- 
pended on  tire  to  tiiniuT  tlie  cold  of  their  rigorous 
winters;  "dog"  and  "lire"  are  therefore  combined  in 
the  ideograph  by  which  the  Ti  are  designated.  The  J  ung 
wen-  armed  with  spears,  .md  tltis  their  weapon  furnished 
the  symbol  for  their  ideograph.  The  ideograph  Ch'iang 
is  made  up  of  the  head  of  a  goat  and  the  legs  of  a  man, 
and  so  denotes  to  the  Chinese  imagination  hideous  mon- 
sters, the  reverse  of  the  (ireek  conception  of  Pan  and  the 
Satyrs ;  it  means  "  goat-men."  "  goat-herds,"  or  "  shep- 
herds," and  identities  them  essentially  with  the  Ti.  or 
dog-using  nomads  of  tiie  north.  The  character  for  Man 
combines  those  for  "  worm "  and  "  silk.'  and  impHes 
that  the  barbarians  of  the  south,  even  at  that  early  day, 
were  tint  it^norant  of  silk-culture. 

These  names  and  characters  all  became  more  or  less 
expressive  of  contempt,  l.u  were  without  doubt  less 
offen-ive  in  tlieir  original  sense.  Marco  Polo,  who  fol- 
lowed the  Tartar  usage,  applies  the  wo^d  Man.  \.)  the 
form  Manzi  (or  Montsi)  to  the  whole  of  the  Chinese 
peoDl''.  The\  were  so  called  as  being  "  south mns  .  ith 
resjiect  to  the  people  of  Mongolia,  and  at  the  same  time 
objects  of  contempt  to  their  conquerors. 


THE  TARTARS  IN  ANCIENT  CHINA  4.7 

All  tlie  tribes  of  the  suutli  and  the  east,  i.  e.  the  Man 
and  the  Yi,  save  certain  aborigines  called  Miao,  were  con- 
quered ;ui<l  gradually  aL>orbed  and  assimilated  by  the 
vigorous  race  whose  progeny  people.  m.Mlern  China 
proper.  The  Miao  have  been  able  u>  retain  tiicir  inde- 
pen.lencc  to  the  ].re^ei,t  day,  by  taking  refuge  in  the  inac- 
cessible fastnesses  of  iiiuimtain  chains. 

The  barbarous  tribes  of  the  north  and  west,  the  Ti  and 
the  Ch'iang,  were  never  permanently  subdued.   This  was 
simply  because  tlieir  land>  never  invited  ujiuiucst.  Their 
storm-swept  pastures  otiered  tiie  Chinese  no  adequate 
compensation  for  the  toil  and  danger  involved  in  such  an 
undertakino;.    On  tlie  cntrarv.  as  we  have  seen,  it  was 
the  wealtli  and  fertility  of  Ciiina  that  tempted  constantly 
throughout  the  eight  hundred  years  of  the  Chou  dvnasty. 
the  fierce  and  hungry  tribes  ,,f  the  north  and  west  to 
make  their  predator)-  incursions.    These  are  the  quarters 
from  which  conquering  armies  have  once  and  again  risen 
tip.  like  the  s.inds  of  their  deserts,  to  overwhelm  parts  or 
the  whole  of  the  empire.    To  repel  tiir  ag^^ressions  of 
these  troublesome  neighbors  was  tiie  chief  occupation  of 
tlie  (.hinese  armies  in  tiie  earliest  times,  as  it  has  con- 
tinued to  l)e  ilnun  tliroii-h  all  liir  nf,'es.    The  oldest 
e.-;tant  Liiinese  p.K-try,  older  than  any  history,  shows  us 
t!ie  t  hinese  warrior,  like  the  magic  hc.-seman  of  Granada, 
with  the  head  of  iiis  steed  and  the  point  of  his  lance 
directed  always  towards  the  nonh  as  the  source  of  dan- 
ger.  History  shows  that  the  princes  who  were  employed 
to  hold  these  enenvcs  in  check  generallv  held  in  their 
hands  the  destinies  of  the  empire.     And  in  this  wav 
the  northern  tribes  exercised  for  centuries,  throughout 
the  third  or  Chou  dynasty,  an  indirect  but  important  polit- 
ical influence. 

To  give  only  two  examples,  both  from  the  most  ancient 


4i8  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

pcrM  of  authentic  history:— The  house  of  Chou,  the 

must  itl-.istrioiis  of  tlu-  tuinty-f-.ur  dynastit-s,  rose  from 
.1  small  warlike  principality  in  the  mountains  uf  the  nortii- 
wcst ;  tlu  v  were  made  strong'  hy  conflict  with  their  savage 
enemies,  ';m.i  tluir  chief  was  rcRanlul  .i>  tlie  imUvark  -.f 
the  nation.    Ilsi  To.*  the  Lord  of  the  West,  or  Wen 
Wang,  as  he  is  now  called,  excited  by  his  growing  power 
the  jealousy  of  his  suzerain,  the  last  cmi  cror  of  the 
sfcond  or  Shanp  dymsty.  and  was  thrown  into  prison  by 
the  tyrant,  who  did  not   larc,  however,  to  put  him  to 
death.   In  the  panic  caused  by  a  sudden  irruption  of  the 
north  m.ri,  \Wn  Wang  was  set  iu-v,  and  invested  with 
even  greater  power  than  he  had  ever  possessed  before. 
To  the  day  of  his  death,  he  remained  loyal ;  but  his  son, 
Chou  1-a.  or  Wu  Wang,  eiuiOoyed  !ns  trained  forces,  like 
a  d  nihle-edged  sword,  not  only  to  protect  the  frontier 
and  drive  back  the  invaders,  but  to  overturn  the  throne 
of  his  master,  the  last  emperor  ,.f  the  Shan;?. 

After  the  lapse  of  over  eight  hundred  years,  the  house 
of  Chou  was  replaced  by  the  house  of  ChMn  which  had 
been  cradled  among  the  same  mountains  and  m.u!.  stn  -  i,' 
by  conflict  with  the  same  enemies.  During  the  Chou 
period  (1122  B-  to  255  b.  c),  the  barbarians  never 
ceased  to  be  a  factor  in  the  politics  of  the  empire .  not 
iner.ly  makiu.tr  fMrnv^  .aid  retiring  with  their  bo.Jty.  but 
driving  the  Chinese  before  them,  occupying  their  lands, 
and  planting  themselves  in  the  shape  of  independent 
or  fcu'lal  States,  as  the  Coths  and  Vandals  did  within  the 
boun.ls  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  analogy  does  not 
stop  liere.  Like  the  Roman  empire,  China  had.  in  the 
early  part  of  the  Chou  period,  two  capnals.  one  in  the 
west  near  fisi  .\n  Fu  (al>out  one  hundred  miles  south- 
•  Mcncius  says  that  T'ai  Wang,  the  grandfather  of  Hsi  Po, 
paid  tribute  to  the  Tartars. 


THE  TARTARS  IN  ANCIENT  CHINA  419 

west  f.f  the  preat  bcml  of  the  Iliianp  H,,).  in  Shnisi ;  an.l 
aimtlM  Ml  the  cast,  near  thv  pux  iit  K  ai  Feng  Fu.  in 
llonan.  The  fomu-r  was  saiktd  l,\  1';,  Tartars  in  781 
B.  c.,  jiist  as  Roiijf  was  In-  ttu'  eiuths  in  410  a.  d. 

Till-  story.  IS  >,riveti  by  Chinese  writers,  is  as  foHows:— 
The  cnipiTui  Vii  W  an^;  ha.l  ;i  yomi),-  o.iisort  nn  whom  he 
dotcl.    f)ne  day  it  .anif  into  his  iuad  to  give  a  false 
a  I  trill  I.)  the  armies  surrounding  the  capital,  merely  to 
aflnnl  Ikt  an  .-uirisinf;  s|.ecf:ul.'.    lUa   .n  fir.  s,  the  si|,Mia1 
of  imminent  danger,  were  lighted  on  all  the  hills.  The 
nobles  came  rushing  to  the  rescue,  each  at  the  head  of 
his  retainers.    I'inding  there  was  no  real  danger,  they 
dispersed  in  a  state  of  high  indignation.    The  voung 
empress  had  her  laugh;  hut  they  laugh  best  who  laugh 
last,  as  the  proverb  has  it.     \'ot  long  after  this,  the 
Tartars  maile  a  sudden  attack.    The  beaon  fires  wire 
again  lighted,  but  the  nobles,  having  once  been  deceived. 
to<ik  care  not  to  respond  to  the  call,  lest  they  should  again 
be  making  a  woman's  holiday.    The  city  was  taken,  and 
the  silly  sovereign  and  his  fair  enchantress  both  perished 
in  the  flames,   } lowever  much  of  the  legendary  there  may 
be  in  this  narrative,  the  one  stem  fa- 1  that  11.  '  at  the  bot- 
tom of  it  is  the  pi.sence  of  a  ferocious  enemy  whom  we 
call  by  the  genera]  name  of  Tartars. 

Afic  tliis  calamity,  t!  lieir  to  the  throne  removed 
his  court  to  the  .  astern  capital,  leaving  the  tombs  of 
his  fathers  in  the  bands  of  the  barbarians.  In  the  heart 
of  the  central  p  ,ui.l  surrounded  by  a  cordon  of 
feudal  States,  the  imperial  throne  was  thought  to  be 
secure.  But  the  irrepressible  foe  was  forcing  his  way  to 
the  south  and  cast,  willi  a  slow  but  resistless  motion.  A 
hundred  and  thirty  years  later  (abcnit  650  n  r.  ),  we  have 
the  spectacle  of  a  barbarian  horde  in  actual  possession  of 
the  eastern  capital,  and  the  emperor  a  refugee,  pleading 


4ao  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

for  re-mstaic;iii'iil  at  ilu-  liaiuls  of  liis  va>sals.  As  might 
he  expected,  the  blame  of  the  cata>tr..pho  is  apaiii  i  liargctl 

(111  a  w'lnm.  Tliat  wotran  \>.  as  a  liarliariaii,  and  tlic  fa^-f 
thruvvs  a  .ron^;  liglu  >'ii  tlu  positiun  ul  Uk-  coiittiidiiit; 
parties. 

IUt  trilic  liud  i-^taM^nr.I  n  in  llu'  ruli  al'u\ial 
rcgiuti  on  tlic  soutlRTii  land  '>f  tin-  Velluw  river.  .\s 
enemies,  they  were  a  stnndin),'  menace  to  the  capital;  as 
friends,  tluy  inifjht  -tTve  f-r  It-  i  iiii/arii-.  hi  nrdiT  t'> 
win  their  fav.)r  and  .secure  their  tidditv,  tlic  impiror 
ti«)k  one  of  ihcir  luitKosis  into  his  haretn.  Captivated 
bv  her  cliarnis,  he  .siih>.  i|nently  raised  her  tn  he  the  part- 
uT  111  his  thmiie.  An  aii.hilii  'tis  kinsman,  desirous  of  snp- 
phuiting  the  emperor  (Hi  llie  throne,  hej^an  hy  siipiilantiiiK 
him  in  the  affections  of  his  barbari.m  ^Mie.  Her  itdi- 
delitv  heiii^'  di--.' ivered,  >ne  was  sent  hack  to  her  km  !red, 
wlieie  sic  was  joined  1>\  Iter  paraiut.ur,  whi)  stirr.d  up 
the  power clan  to  avenge  an  insult  dene  to  thi -i  in 
her  pcr>on.  Thv  eiii|KTor  >'.as  easilv  pm  i"  HiRbt ;  Imt. 
wanting  the  support  of  the  nol.k-s.  the  usurper  s  tenure 
of  the  capital  was  of  short  <hiration. 

Subsequently  the  harhan.ius  miiiaeed  tin-  caiiitn!  tre 
quenti}.  if  n.ii  .-onstanth  ;  and  the  Son  of  llvavrii  was 
more  than  onee  compelled  to  appeal  to  his  vassals  for 
succor.  On  one  occasion,  his  envoys  even  turnci  lu  mst 
him.  an<1  went  over  to  the  enemy,  appi;rcnlly  deemiut,'  it 
better  to  serve  a  prowiii^  than  a  decayinj;  power.  About 
forty  years  earlier  than  tlie  thsht  of  the  eiuneror  al)ovc 
iiieiuioiied.  another  barbarian  beauty,  named  Li  Chi, 
played  a  conspicuous  and  miscliicvnus  role  at  dv  cotirt  of 
Ch'in  Wen,  the  greatest  chief  of  the  v.Tssal  States  Taken 
in  battle,  she  eaptiviited  her  pr-ncdv  ,  r,  am.  m.iin- 
tained  by  licr  talents  iIk-  ascendancy  wliicii  slie  at  iirst 
owed  to  her  personal  attractions.   She  induced  the  prince 


THE  TARTARS  IN  ANCIENT  CHINA  411 

to  change  tho  nr.ler  of  succession  m  favor  uf  h-  off- 
sprmtr,  -.V  ;„;;  ih  St,, Is  of  a  family  fe,,,!  that  hnntght 
the  priiic   V  Iioum-  i„  tlu-  verK^-  uf  .listnu  li, .n. 

Of  these  innnii^ram  Tartar  trihes,  no  i,wcr  than  five 
or  SIX  are  nu-ni,,,,,,  !  „,  ,he  Confucian  Annals  as  having 
succeede.,  in  eMal.!is|,„,,  tlun.sdv.s  in  ,1,,  ini.rinr  ,  i 
tlima.    I  wu  of  .hnn  (.alle.l  K,  .!  an.i  Uh.te.-probal.lv. 

th..  N  r.  an.l  IJianchi  of  Florence,  from  the  color  of 
tl.nrd..thn„;,  or  of  ,lu  ir  hann.  r.)  were  c..„|,.l  (he 
boumN  uf  tlH'  prese..t  pruvi.uv  of  Shansi ;  one  in  1 1., nan  • 
one  m  (  h.hli;  and  two  in  Shantung.   How  the^  dfeeie.l 
a  -ttl..,.,,n!       nut  ,!ir,l,nlt  to  undcrstan.!.     In  an  age 
•-f  unarchy.  when  ..vai  States  were  conien,i;.,^  f,.r  th.- 
hegemony,  the  great  Kirons  foimd  it  to  their  interest  t.. 
^ec.re  t!,r  a,.!  uf  tru,,|,s  „f  hardy  horsemen  from  the 
northern  plains,  rewar.ln,-.  ,lu,r  serxiv  hy  ^.rants  uf 
land.  The  emperor  soukIh  m  the  same  way  to  strengthen 
himself  ag.inst  his  uni  uh  vassals.  And  so.  at  last  by  too 
great  dependen..-    .   for,       auxiliaries,  the  emiiire  be- 
came unable  to  snak.  helpers. 

How  deeply  sea'     .,  ,      .  antagonism  between  th<  n. 
an.l  the  Ch.ne,e  n,  ,re,!  from  one  ur  ;  .  .  c 

amples.     Ihe  empo  atwiit  to  despatch  ■  !  .Jv 

of  those  hired  auxiliaries  to  chastise  a  disobedi        1,  't 
one  of  his  ministers  wa.ned  him  a^^ainst  a  .neas.u  wi.ich 
would  be  sure  to  alienate  his  i.-iends,  and  stren-thet>  tl,. 
hands  of  the  common  enemv    •  Jf."  said  ti.e  minister 
•the  prnuv    -..is  his  nior..-   iirtuence  i.r -a.kient  'u  se- 
cure order,  his  next  res.  r;      to  niak-o  t!     „i,,.t  ,>f  the 
lies  of  bloo.!.    But  let  him  leware  of  throwing  himself 
>nt..  tl...  anus  of  a  foreign  invader."    This  counsel  re- 
minds us  ui  tlR-  rrmunstrana-  of  I  -.,r,\  (-liatham  as-ainst 
the  emplnymenl  uf  sav.iges.  in  the  cun  :i,t  uiti,  the  Ameri- 
can colonies.    We  may  add  that  Indi.  and  China  both 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


came  under  the  sway  of  their  present  ruK-rs  through 
the  mistaken  policy  of  dependinR  on  foreign  auxiliaries. 

With  the  Chinese,  it  was  a  practical  maxim  that  no 
faith  was  to  be  kept  with  those  invaders;  and  a  terrihle 
vengeam  e  n  as  sometimes  taken  for  the  insults  and  perfidy 
to  which  they  were  suhjected. 

Another  fact  may  be  cited,  which  shows  at  once  the 
power  of  the  barharians  and  the  horror  '.n  wliicli  tluy 
were  held.    In  the  sixth  century  b.  l.  the  rising  civiliza- 
tion of  China  was  on  the  point  of  being  overwhelmed  bv 
thcin.  when  a  deliverer  was  raised  up  -ii  the  i)er-<on  of 
Duke  Huan,  uf  Lh'i,  who  turned  the  tide  at  the  critical 
moment,  as  Theodoric  did  the  onslaught  of  the  Huns 
under  Attila.    Mow  imminent  was  the  peril  of  the  eni- 
pire.  and  how  eminent  the  merit  of  the  victor,  is  apparent 
from  a  reply  of  (  .  nfucius  to  some  one  who  sujjpi.sed  that 
he  had  spoken  disparagingly  of  Duke  11  ua..  "  1  low  could 
I  disp:ira?e  Dnke  Ihian?""  Ik-  exclaimed;  "but  for  him 
we  should  all  have  been  buttoning  our  coats  on  the  left 
side,"  i.  e.,  we  should  have  been  subject  to  the  Tartars. 

Thus  far,  we  have  occupied  ourselves  with  what  we 
may  call  an  outline  of  the  political  relaiiuns  of  the  (  hi- 
nese  with  the  northern  tribes  in  war  and  in  jieace.  The 
ethnography  of  those  tribes  now  claims  <nir  attention, 
if  only  to  siiow  the  impossibility  of  arriving  at  any  satis- 
factory conclusion.  The  doubts  expressed  by  the  In-st 
authorities  as  to  the  ethnological  relations  of  the  Hsiang 
N'u  have  alreaily  been  referred  to.  Consi)icuo!>s  as  they 
are  in  historv  for  many  centuries  al»out  the  cummencement 
of  the  Christian  era,  it  has  been  much  disputed  whether 
tluy  were  rurk>,  Mongols,  or  Huns.  How  much  greater 
is  the  difficulty  of  identification  as  we  travel  h.ick  to  a 
period  where  the  torch  of  listory  sheds  but  a  feeble 


THE  TARTARS  IN  ANCIENT  CHINA  413 

ray.  or  disappears  in  the  vague  obscurity  of  legendary 

tradition.  ' 

1.1  those  remote  ages,  the  guiding  clue  of  philologv  fails 
us.    While  a  few  names  that  appear  in  the  less  ancient 
literature,  such  as  Hui  Ku  and  T'u  Chueh.*  suggest  the 
"lentuy  of  the  tribes  that  bore  them  with  the  ( )„iLn.nrs 
and  Turks,  there  is  absolutely  nothing  to  he  made  out 
ot  ;„i  nanus  that  meet  us  most  frequently  in  the  earlier 
records.     I  he  vagne  terms  Jung  and  Ti.  under  which 
were  grouped  peoples  as  diverse  as  the  tribes  of  North 
American  hidians.  are  always  accompanied  by  some  mark 
of  contempt :  tlu-  character  for  dog  is  prefixed  to  one,  and 
mcorporated  with  the  other.    Ilsien  Yuan.  an.,thcr  name 
of  frt^uent  cKcurrence.  has  the  dog  radical  in  Loth  its 
parts,  and  api^ars  intended  to  confound  the  people  who 
bore  It  with  a  tribe  of  dog-like  apes    It  could  hardly  be 
expected  that  writers,  who  deny  their  neighbors '  the 
attrihiiles  .,f  humanity,  would  take  an  interest  in  depicting 
Ihe.r  manners  or  studying  their  language.  .Xccord.nely 
we  search  in  vain  in  the  earlier  Chinese  literature  for 
any  such  precious  fragments  of  those  northern  tongues  as 
Plautus.  m  one  of  his  pla\  .  has  preserved  of  the  Cartha- 
ginian.   Tliey  themselves  possesse.l  no  written  speech  • 
an.l.  ha.l  they  possessed  it.  they  have  left  us  no  such  im- 
pcnshal.le  monuments  or  rdics  of  handicraft  as,  at  this 

ElruscJis.'"'""""'  °"  »he 

A  vast  amount  of  undigested  information  is  to  be  found 
the  pages  of  Ma  Tuan  Lin.  relating  to  the  border 

<-Twt.r)  H.,en  Pi.  Su  Sh«n     These  are  only 
some  of  the  nanu  s  ,h,„       Riven  in  a  way  more  or  lew 
to  the  nomads  c.f  th.  North  and  West.  ^ 


^24  '^'HE  LORE  OK  CATHAY 

tribes  of  tin-  iniddk-  aijcs.  lUit  imtsi.lo  the  circle  of  the 
classics,  tlic  only  .lo.criplivc  gcograi-hy  that  has  reached 
us  from  the  Chou  period  is  the  Slum  //.'/  Cliin^.  a  kind 
uf  C'liiiu'so  (iullivir,  which  peoi.K-  tlic  worM  with  mon- 
stt-rs  of  every  form  and  fashion.  The  older  writers,  m 
confounding  numerous  tribes  imder  one  or  a  few  terms, 
were  no  doubt  influenced  by  the  fact  that  to  them  they 
all  ai)i)careil  under  one  a^^)ect,— t'lat  of  wanderinji  hunt- 
ers or  shepherds,  equally  rude  and  equally  ferocious. 

No  one  who  irives  attention  to  such  Milijcct-  can  fail 
tn  be  struck  uitli  .1  twofold  i.rcK-ess  that  lakes  place  in 
the  life  of  all  nations,  and  most  of  all  in  that  of  nomadic 
tril)es.    The  first  is  what  we  may  call  the  sta^'c  of  dif- 
ferentiation, thr..Ui;!i  which  tlie\  j.ass.  when,  small  and 
weak,  they  keep  themselves  isolated  from  their  neigh- 
bors: Even  their  languages  diverge  in  a  shmt  time  to 
such  a  de^'fii'  as  to  he  mittually  imimel'i!.,Mble.  The 
second  is  the  stage  of  assimilation,  when.  brout;ht  into 
the  collisions  of  war  or  the  intercourse  of  trade,  each 
gives  and  receives  impression^  that  make  them  ap]>roxi- 
mate  to  a  common  type.    Thus  the  barbarians  on  the 
north  of  China  present  in  the  earlier  ages  a  vague  variety, 
which  tends,  with  the  laj)se  of  time,  to  give  place  to  uni- 
formity <'i  manners,  and  even  of  physical  features. 

Rolling  over  the  planis,  as  the  waves  over  the  sea, 
their  hliHMl  has  been  commingled:  and,  thoUL;h  their 
names  b.ave  -fun  luin-e.l,  their  phx-ual  type  has  prob- 
ably remained  unaiured.  It  is  naiiual  lo  raise  th/  .pies- 
tion.  -What  was  that  physical  type?  It  has  n"i  be,  n 
luiide.l  il.-wn  either  in  painim-  .  r  sculpture,  ;md  I 
think  It  is  possible  for  lis  to  recover  it.  It  stands  bel\)re 
us  to-day.  stamiH-d  on  their  descendants  of  the  hun- 
dredth genenitK  ii  \>  tlie  Mmchu  and  Mongol  :ire  to 
tlay,  such  were  the  Jung  ami  the  Ti,  co  eval  with  Assyria 


THE  TARTARS  IN  ANCIENT  CHINA  425 

ami  i!alni..n.  The  l»eautiful  Alcnta,  tlic  hapless  consort 
of  the  late  emperor,  was  a  Mongol.  Her  granti lather, 
the  (irand  Secr.  tary  Sai  Sliang  A.  having  failed  to  sup- 
press the  'iai-ping  Kebellion,  was  thrown  into  prison 
and  condemned  to  death.  His  son.  Ch  ung  Ch  i.  begged 
to  share  his  fate,  and  ten.lerly  served  him  in  his  con- 
finement,—an  act  of  filial  piety  which  was  snbseqiiently 
rewar.lo.!  by  his  elevation  to  the  dignify  of  Cliimig  Yuan. 
or  Scholar  Laureate  of  the  Empire.  So  eminent  is  this 
grade  that  his  davphtcr  was  deemed  a  fit  consort  for  the 
late  Kniperor  1  nng  Chih.  For  two  short  years  she  en- 
joyed her  brilliant  position,  when,  the  Emperor  dying, 
she  ic fused  food  and  followed  him  into  the  world  of 
spirits. 

More  thafi  two  thousand  years  ago,  other  princes  were 
.  aptivatrd  lis  tile  beauty  of  the  daughters  of  the  desert. 
The  barbarians  of  those  times  were  probably  not  inferior 
to  the  Chinese  in  form,  feature,  or  natural  intelligence, 
as  tb.  ir  descendants  are  not  inferior  in  any  of  these 
respi-cts.  In.ieed  Chinese.  Mancbiis,  and  M..ni,r,,k,  as  we 
see  them  in  the  city  of  Peking,  are  not  distinguishable 
except  by  some  peculiarity  of  costume. 

Were  they  nrin^inally  of  ..iic  nimiM.  or  have  the  lines 
of  distinction  become  gradnaily  effaced  by  the  intercourse 
of  ages?  The  latter  is,  we  think,  the  correct  hypothesis. 
The  primitive  Chinese  type,  that  ini|i..rted  by  the  immi- 
grants who  founded  the  civilisation  of  China,  is,  we  be- 
lieve, no  longer  to  be  discerned.  In  the  southern  and 
central  re^n,,,!,  it  has  every ulu-e  been  mo<iified  by  com- 
bination with  the  af)ori,q:inal  iidi.ibiiants.  l.adin-  to  pro- 
vincial characteristics,  wliich  the  i.racticed  eye  can  easily 
recognize,  ft  has  undergone,  we  think,  a  similar  modifi- 
cation in  the  northern  belt  Tf  met  ben-  with  tribes  akin  f,> 
those  of  .\long..lia.  and  gradually  absorbed  them,  and 


426  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


to  this  coiiihiiiation  arc  probably  ilue  the  height  and 
the  stalwart  i)hysi(iue  of  the  Northern  Chinese. 

This  process  was  fjoiiig  uii  in  pre-historic  times. 
History,  at  its  earbest  dawn,  shows  us  unassimilated  frag- 
mitits  nf  tliusc  tribes  existing  amonj;  tlio  Northern  Oii- 
nese.  It  also  discloses  a  vast  southwar.i  ii'i  •\  iimnt  ol  tiie 
outside  barbarians,  chicked  for  a  time  by  ib.e  ( ireat  Wall, 
only  to  be  reiiewe<l  on  a  tniMe  .slU])endous  scale.  W'e  have 
seen  how  small  bodies  infiltrated  through  every  charmel ; 
wi-  liavf  also  seen  bow,  or^^anized  into  threat  ?itates,  they 
cstablisiied  in  China  a  dominion  enduring  lor  centuries. 
We  are  inclined  to  believe  that  they  have  stamped  their 
impress  (.n  the  people  of  North  China  a>  tbon nimbly 
as  till-  Sa.xons  have  theirs  i>n  the  pi-ojile  t)f  luiglaml.  or  the 
Vandals  theirs  on  that  f)art  of  Spain  which  still  bears 
their  name  in  the  form  i  i  Andalusia. 

The  lonmr  bnvt-  made  the  bmpiaije  of  the  i'.n^lish 
es.sentially  Cierm.uiic ;  aii<i  the  language  of  northern  China 
has  been  profoundly  modified  hy  Tartar  influence.  Hence 
we  are  told  bv  Dr.  I'dkins  that  tlie  ancient  Cliinese  pro- 
nunciation is  only  to  be  found  in  the  .Southern  provinces, 
where  in  fact  we  should  UKik  for  it,  in  the  region  least 
affi'cti'd  ti\  the  tide  of  iiiv;i-.inii. 

I  f  you  inquire  for  the  inlluences  to  which  the  invaders 
have  in  their  turn  been  subjected,  we  answer  that,  in  all 
ages,  tliev  liave  excbangul  barbarism  for  such  civilization 
as  they  found  among  the  more  cultivated  race. 


XXII 


INTERNATIONAL  LAW  IN  ANCIENT  CHINA 

THE  tRatic-s.I.y  which  C  hina  has  been  brought  into 
clu.scr  ivlatiuns  with  th.-  „ati.,ns  „f  th.  \\\  -u,,! 
especially  the  estabhslmant  of  intercourse  by 
"uans  of  pcnnancu  embassies,  have  led  Chinese  states- 
men to  tur..  their  attention  to  the  subject  of  lnter™.tionaI 

F'^>  then,  it  is  a  new  study,  involvin^r  conceptions 
winch  a  wuuM  hanllv  have  ,,...„  ^J^^^ 
ecessors  to  forn.  at  any  tunc  in  the  course  of  the  lis, 
tw..  thousand  years:  though,  as  we  shall  endeavor  to 

Their  modem  history  commences  two  centuras  before 
tlu  I  hr,s„a„  ,ra  ;  ^^^^ 

u.to  thrc.  pc.ods  The  first,  extending  fn.n,  the  ^o  h 
of  tne  umc  wars  down  to  tito  discovery  o.  the  route  to 
the  In.  !,y  the  tape  of  Goo.1  Hope;  the  sec^ond.  com- 
prehendu,^.  three  centuries  and  a  half  of  restricted  cotn- 
merc,al  mtercourse.  the  th.rd.  con.n.e.K.n,  ,1,:": 

Durins  the  first,  the  C  hinese  were  as  li„!,  affected 
by  the  convulsions  that  shcK,k  the  western  worM  "  ^ 
*Th.-  works  of  Wheaton.  \V.,ols,-v  nitimsrhli       i  . 


437 


4a8  THE  LORK  OK  CA  I  MAY 


\  Ii.kI  hilons^i'il  to  anotlicr  pl.nu  t.  I  Miring,'  the  second, 
i1k  \  licoanic  aware  of  tiic  t-xisiciui'  "1  ttic  principal  States 
of  iiiiMlirn  I'.iinipe;  but  the  li^ht  that  reached  them  was 
iinl  \ci  MilVkiint  to  reveal  tlie  iii.i^iiiiuile  ami  iir.iMirtance 
of  those  far  iiff  powirs.  W  itliiii  liii'  la>t  pltukI  the  open- 
ing; of  the  Suez  (  anal  and  the  cnnsinution  of  the  Trans- 
Siberian  Railway  have  brouRht  them  into  what  they 
regard  a-  a  dani^-en m>  pi.i\iniitv  ti'  f.Miuidalilr  in  iijlil'.Mr-;. 
And  the  rude  expei  Kikes  of  five  wars,  each  UKieasnig  in 
intensity  until  China  was  pitted  against  the  world,  have 
nia«le  them  aajuainted  with  the  military  strength  of  Euro- 
pean nations. 

Such  are  the  steps  by  which  China  has  been  led  to 
accept  intercourse  on  a  foolinj,-^  ..i"  ((luality  with  natinns 
which,  for  three  centuries,  she  had  been  accustomed  to 
cla>s  with  her  own  tril maries. 

Her  tributaries  in.  lu-l.  ,1  all  the  petty  States  nf  Eastern 
\  ia  .\ilractid  partis  by  community  of  letiers  and 
religinii,  and  partly  by  commercial  interest,  bat  more, 
perhaps,  by  tlie  moral  cfifcct  of  her  national  greatness, 
tlit  v  rendiTed  a  voluntary  liomatje  l.i  tlu'  master  "f  n 
realm  so  vast  that,  like  Rome  of  old,  it  has  always  called 
itself  by  a  title  equivalent  to  orhis  tcrrarnm.  Tluso  vassal 
Stai'  >  had  U  w  relations  with  each  ntluT.  and  it  w  is  not 
to  be  exi.ecteil  that  China,  acknowleilgiiig  nmhing  hke 
reciprocitN  in  her  intercourse  with  them,  slujuld  learn 
from  tin  III  ilic  idea  of  a  community  of  nations  possessed 
of  c(iiial  riu'bts. 

l  iir  twenty  centuries  she  had  presentcfl  to  her  own 
people,  as  well  as  to  her  (kpendent  neii^hliors,  the  im- 
p(i^in<^  '  jiectacle  of  an  empire  iinux.ibd  in  extent,  whose 
unitv  bad  !>een  broken  only  by  rare  inii  i  vals  of  revolutii^n 
i.r  anarchy.  During  this  long  period,  it  was  no  more 
possible  that  an  international  code  should  spring  up  in 


INTERNATIONAL  LAW  429 

China  than  it  would  have  been  for  such  a  thing  to  appear 
l  'in.|H'.  Ill, I  tlu.  RoMiaii  empire  remained  undivided 
until  llie  present  day.  The  requisite  eon.Iition.  were 
want.np.  Where  they  exist,  a  cmle  based  ujiun  usage, 
aiul  iiiou  ..r  less  developed,  comes  into  being  by  the 
uecesMties  of  the  human  mind. 
These  conditions  are : 

Ist.-The  existence  of  a  group  of  independent  States  -.,  s,tn 
ated  as  to  re.|uire  or  Uvout  the  maintenanre  of 
friendly  intercfuirse; 

and. -That  those  States  should  be  so  related  as  to  conduct 
their  intercourse  on  a  basis  of  equality. 

If  these  conditions  were  conspicuousK  absent  under 
>!"•  o,„s,,|„!aie,l  empire,  t!,ey  were  no  less  obviously 
present  HI  the  i)recfding  period,  accmpanie.I  l,v  everv 

c.  rcu.nstance  that  could  favor  the  development  of  an 
intcniati  >iial  code. 

The  vast  tloniain  of  Ch,m  proper  uas  at  -'  a.  ..^kU 

d.  vi.led  iH-twcen  a  numlH-r  of  indepen.ient  priMcipalitks 
whose  people  ere  of  une  bloml,  ,K,ssessors  ot  a  common 
cmhzatton  alretdv  i.ttich  adv.m.ed,  an.l  imitcd  hv  the 
additional  bond  ,,f  a  common  lauK-uage. 

These  conditions  concurred  in  ancient  Greece  and  the 
result  was  n  n,  m.ientary  code,  eidminatin^  in  the  .\m- 
phictyon.c  (  ounci!.-a  provision  for  settii,,^.  inieniaiin„al 
disputes,  which  suggests  comparison  with  d:.-  •  eoncert  ' 
of  F'.uinpcaii  I  uers. 

in  ancient  China,  the  conditions  are  •  iniilir  but  -he 
scale  of  o|)eratinn  is  vastly  more  extended      i  „ere  'i. 
m.reov.r.  anotb-r  i.„p.,rtant  difference.     Th-  Chinese 
States  wen-  not.  like  those  of  Gree  e.  a  <  h:s„r  of  de- 
tached tribes  who  had  together  emerged  fr,,,,,  barbarism 
without  any  weU-defined  politick  connection:  thev  were 


430 


IHE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


tlu-  frai^nunts  nf  a  ili>itilf;,'rat((l  riiipirr,  iiilicriting  its 
laws  and  civilization,  as  llic  Slates  of  nioilcrn  Eu  ope 
inhcrilc<l  tliusr  of  Rome. 

Tin-  peril  111  (liiriiit^  which  tlicv  rose  and  fdl  was  the 
latter  iiall  ul  the  dynasty  of  Chou,  pretty  nearly  cor- 
respuntiin^  to  that  extending  from  the  birth  of  Solon  to 
the  close  of  tile  first  century  after  the  death  of  Alexander, 
which  in  China,  as  in  Greece,  was  an  age  of  intense 
political  activity.  The  normal  form  of  government  for 
the  emjiin'  was  the  feudal,  the  archetype  of  tliat  which 
pre\  liled  in  Japan  until  it  v, a-^  swept  away  Iiy  tin-  revo- 
luiU'ii  of  |S(>S.  The  several  ."^lates  were  creatcil  by  the 
voluntary  subdivision  of  the  national  «lomain  by  the 
founder  I'l  tlu  dxiias  y,  who,  like  ( 'li.irleiiiaf^ne,  by  this 
arrangeiiieiu  plaiued  within  it  the  seids  of  its  destruction. 

The  throne  of  each  State  being  hereditary,  a  feeling 
of  iiulei)i'ndeiu"e  scmhi  beij.Mi  to  spring  Up.  The  emperors 
were  at  first  able  to  preserve  order  by  force;  and,  even 
when  shorn  of  their  power,  their  court,  like  that  of  the 
Holy  See  in  the  Middle  .\j,'es,  entninued  for  a  lonj;  time  to 
serve  a.-i  a  court  of  api)ea!  for  the  adjustment  of  int<Tna- 
tional  ilifficulties.  At  length,  losing  all  respect  for  au- 
thority, the  feudal  princes  threw  off  the  semblance  of 
subjei  lii '!  ,  ,111(1  pursued  witlK)iU  restraint  the  objects  of 
tlieir  i)Mvate  ambition.  This  age  is  called  by  the  native 
historians  chan  kiio,  or  that  of  the  "  warring  States ; " 
and  that  whirb  preieded  it,  cbaracterizcd  by  onl.  rlv  and 
jiaoific  ;ntiTCfii'.r^e.  is  desi  ril)ed  as  lich  kuo,  or  the  family 
of  "  eo  <.r,!iii:iled  Stat-s." 

N  faniil\  "'i  .'>taies,  with  stub  an  arena  and  .such 
antecedents,  could  hardly  fail  to  (levelf)p.  in  the  inter- 
course of  peace  and  war,  a  system  of  usages  which  might 
he  rcgar«led  as  constituting  for  them  a  body  of 
international  laws. 


INTERNATIONAL  LAW  43, 

Acconli.iKlv .  if  we  t.ini  to  the  history  of  the  period, 
m  quest  of  sml,  an  in.lij^.nMis  sv.tcm,  we  shall  find  if 
not  the  systcn  iisdf.  at  least  the  evi.lence  of  its  existence. 
\Ve  find,  as  we  have  said,  a  family  of  .States,  many  of 
"'«;"'      rNU.„.ivT  .-.s  the  ^rcat  .St,-,,,-  ,,f  uestern  Europe, 
unue.l  l,y  tl.e  t.es  uf  race,  literature,  an^l  reliKi.m,  .arrvmg 
on  an  active  intercourse,  commen-ial  aii.l  political  which 
without  some  recoKni/d  Jus  f^cnf.u-.n,  would  have  been 
impracticahle.    We  find  the  intcrchantr.  nf  nnhassi,.. 
with  forms  of  courtesy,  intlicative  uf  .m  eialH.rate  civiliza- 
tion.  VVe  find  treaties  .s<.len.„ly  drawn  up  and  deposited 
for  safe  keeping  in  a  sacred  place  called  .1 P,,  \\'c 
find  a  halance  of  power  studied  and  practiscdrieadini?  to 
cnn,I.i.,atin„.s  ,0  check  the  aggressions  of  the  strong  and 
to  protect  the  ridus  „f  the  weak.    \\V  find  the  rights  of 
neutrals  to  a  certain  extent  recognized  an.l  respected 
I'.nally.  wc  find  a  class  of  men  devoted  to  diplomacy  as  a 
profe  ssion,*  though.  .0  say  the  truth,  their  diploni.ncy  was 
not  ui.l.kc  that  which  was  practised  by  the  States  of 
Italy  in  the  days  of  Machiavelli. 

Xo  f,>n„al  text  Look,  containing  the  rules  which  for 
so  many  centuries  controlled  this  complicated  intercourse 
has  come  down  to  our  times.    If  such  writings  ever 
ox  .ted  they  prohaMy  perishe.l  in  the  "conflagration  of 
the  books    which  sheds  such  a  lurid  light  on  the  memorv 
of  the  builder  of  the  Great  \\  all.    The  mcmbn,  disjecta 
of  such  an  international  code  as  we  have  supposed  are 
however,  to  l,e  found  profusely  scattered  over  the  litera- 
ture of  those  tinie.s,_in  the  writings  of  Confucius  and 
Mencius;  in  those  of  other  philosophers  of  the  'ast  five 
centunes  n.  c  :  in  various  historical  records  -  and  par- 
ticularly in  the  Clwu  Li.  or  Riles  of  the  Own  ,/v„asf\' 
The  day  may  perhaps  come  when  some  Chinese  Grotius 
*  See  next  chapter. 


43* 


THt  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


will  gather  up  thcsi  lU  -nhory  hints  a-  lan  fill'  r\s  the 
illustrious  HoUaivicr  iliti  tin.'  traces  uf  intornatinnai  ii-aj;es 
in  Greece  an*!  Ita  .  To  ii  ike  even  a  partial  cnllectijin  of 
the  pa'->;t^;i^  in  i  Iniicx'  untcrs  relatin}^  to  t!ii^  suhjoct, 
would  luitlar  iiu  ■^ithin  li  t  scope  nor  the  compass 
of  the  present  ci.apu  i  Ml  that  I  propose  to  myself,  in 
addition  to  indicatintr.  as  1  have  'lone,  the  exi'-inn  i  I  t 
twfi-n  ilif  Stall  -  of  aiuiciit  hma  of  a  peculiar  system  of 
cdtismtuuiiiary  law,  i.-.  to  makj  a  few  citations  confirma- 
tory of  the  views  expressed,  and  throwing  li}^ht  nn  sonic 
of  tlu'  more  interesting  of  the  topics  to  which  I  have 
adverted. 

The  clearest  view  of  the  public  law  which  was  ac- 

knowldl^id  l'\  this  j^r'ir.ji  of  St.iics,  alter  tlu  v  Iirf.-inie  in- 
dependent, is  undniihtedly  to  be  sought  fur  iti  llnir  rela- 
tions to  each  other  while  subject  to  a  common  suzt  r^'n. 

Tile  ^ri  iti  r  Mates  w  i  re  tw  i  h  e  in  minilxT,  and  t''>r  ages 
that  distrilnitinn  of  territory  was  reganlcd  as  no  less 
permanent  than  the  order  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  It  was 
consecrated  by  the  science  of  astronomy  as  it  then  existed, 
and  .m  ancient  map  of  the  heavens  gives  us  a  duodecimal 
division,  with  the  stars  of  eacli  portion  formally  set  apart 
to  preside  over  the  destinies  of  a  corresponding  portion  of 
the  empire. 

Tlic  names  of  the  twelve  great  States  may  also  he  seen 
inscribed  on  tlie  horizon  of  an  azimuth  instrument,  made 
inkier  the  Mmtt,'. '1  d\;ia»l\  .  rin'.-v  i^jn  and  still  pre-erved 
in  the  ( 'hservai' 'i  \  of  IVkitig.  What  can  better  illustrate 
the  depth  of  the  scnt'ment  connected  with  this  territorial 
division  than  the  I'act  t!  it  sifh  a  smivenir,  ass' ■<  i.itiiig 
it  with  the  iincliangiiig  heavens,  should  lie  reproduced  in 
the  construction  'if  an  astronomical  instntment  fifteen 
centuries  after  the  last  of  those  Sutes  had  ceased  to 
exist  I 


INTERNATIONAL  LAW  433 

Confucius  appears  to  allude  to  this  in  a  beautiful 
passage  ,n  .lu.  h  I,..  ,  „,e  emperor,  or  the  wise 

star,  which  8,t»  unmoved  on  its  central  tl.r.^ne.  while  all 
l.e  constellation,  r.  v,  h.  aro,.„.,  i..   Could  anything  be 

.lev.sed  more  effectual  tl.an  ,1.,.  alliance  of  peocrraphv  and 

S.a,<  >  un^.  r  ,|,..  ..f,  ,.,ard  of  religion?  More  picturesque 
han  the  Roman  ,nc,hn,|  „f  p,..;,,,,  „u-  houndarie.  under 
the  care  of  a  special  .livi,„iy.     was  pmbablv  more  ,  fr,- 

the  equd  I.nmn  .,f  a  nn.urallv  system,  during  a 

penod  w  ,,,  h.  ,n  ,be  \\..t  ...nessed  the'riso  and  faH^f 
the  Babylon,an.  Ters.an.  and  Greek  empires,  entailing  the 
complete  oMu.ra.ion  of  most  of  their  minor  divisions 

These  tuelvc  Slates  iiad  a  preat  Mumbcr  ,,f  f,...er  nrin- 
c.pah,.es  .lopendent  on  then,,  .he  whole  cun.st.tutiiJ  a 
po  tua  „,.a,,nn  as  multifarious  and  complex 
that  wl.u-h  ex.sto!  u,  C.rmany  under  the  swav  >f  ,he 
Holy  Roman  Lmpirc  '  As  m  medieval  Europe  the 
chtcfs  of  these  States  were  ranked  with  respect  toTbil  ty 

and  baron,  the  .nfertor  dej.en.Iing  on  the  superior,  hut  all 
paymg  homage  to  the  Son  of  Heaven,  a  titiV  which  wa 
even  at  that  early  per.od,  applied  to  the  o  ^ 

ice  of  "f,     r'  "  1'"  """"""  «-d  the  .  ' 

TurllttrJ"  ^"^ 

«««:*ri:c:'itSs;.:.  ^^.T'o^- 

We  note  here  the  presence  of  all  the  five  orders  The 
commentary  of  Tso.  we  may  add,  states  the  object  o5 


MICROCOPY  RESOLUTION  TEST  CHART 

(ANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHART  No  2. 


A    /APPLIED  IM/^GE  lnc 


(71t)  ;'88  -  5989  - 


434  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

the  meeting  as  "  the  formation  of  a  league  and  the  pro- 
motion of  friendly  relations  in  accordance  with  authorised 
usage." 

The  authorized  usages  here  referred  to  constituted  the 
basis  of  the  international  law  of  the  time.  They  were  con- 
tained in  part  in  tlic  C7ioi(  Li.  or  Rites  of  the  Chou  dynasty, 
published  by  iinpcrial  authority  about  iioo  B.  c,  and,  in  a 
somewhat  mutilated  iorni.  c-xlant  ai  ilie  present  day.  This 
Code  defines  the  orders  of  nobility;  prescribes  a  sump- 
tuary law  for  each,  extending:  oven  to  tbcir  rites  of  sepul- 
ture; regulates  the  part  of  eacl;  in  the  public  sacrifices; 
and  lays  down  a  form  of  etiquette  to  be  observed  in  all 
their  public  nicetin.ixs.  It  gives  in  detail  the  hierarchy 
of  officers,  civil  and  military ;  indicates  their  functions ; 
fixes  the  weights  and  measures,  the  mode  of  collecting 
the  revenue,  and  the  modes  of  punishment ;  and  all  this 
mixed  up  with  an  infinitude  of  ceremonial  detail  which  to 
us  appears  the  reverse  of  business-like,  but  which  was 
no  doubt  as  well  adapted  to  the  character  of  the  ancient 
Chinese  as  was  the  ritualistic  legislation  of  Moses  to  that 
of  the  Hebrews. 

Primarily  obligatory  on  the  immediate  subjects  of  the 
imperial  house,  this  Co<le  was,  secondarily,  binding  on 
all  the  vassals  of  the  empire,  by  all  of  whom  it  was 
adopted  in  the  minutest  particulars,  with  the  single  ex- 
ception of  the  State  of  Cli'in,  in  the  extreme  northwest,  a 
State  which  obstinately  adhered  to  the  ritual  and  etiquette 
of  the  earlier  dynasty  of  Shang,  and,  cherishing  a  spirit 
of  alienation,  became  the  secret  foe  and  ultimatily  the 
destroyer  of  the  imperial  house. 

With  this  exception,  the  laws  and  usages  of  the  sev- 
eral States  were  so  uniform— all  being  copied  from  a 
common  model— that  tnerc  was  little  occasion  for  the  cul- 
tivation of  that  branch  of  intemati(Mial  jurisprudence. 


INTERNATIONAL  LAW  435 

which  in  mo,leru  times  lias  bcco.ne  so  prominent  under 
tlie  title  of  the  "  conflid  of  laws." 

Ideas  derived  from  the  feudal  system  were  so  inter- 
woven Nvu  ,  every  part  of  this  complicated  legislation  that 
Its  general  acceptance  forn.ol  tlie  niain.tav  of  the  im- 
pena  throne.  The  great  princes  styled  themselves 
vassals,  thnu^l,  as  independent  as  some  of  Chinas  mod- 
ern vassals,  and,  like  these  latter,  paying  formal  homage 
oni.v  once  ,n  five  or  ten  years.*  They  accordingly  looked 
i"P  to  the  empen.r  as  the  fotmtain  of  honor,  and  the 
supreme  authority  .„  all  questions  of  ceremony,  if  not  in 
questions  of  right. 

Of  this  moral  ascendency,  for  which  we  can  find  no 
parallel  better  than  the  veneration  which,  in  the  Middle 
Ages  nearly  all  thnstian  sovereigns  were  wont  to  show 
to  the  i^ioly  See,  we  have  a  remarkable  example  in  the 
A""  }  ».    The  emperor,  Ilsian^^  Wang.  651  B.  c.  being 
driven  by  a  domestic  revolt  from  his  territories-a  small 
district  in  the  center  of  the  empire,  which  mav  be  com- 
pared w.tli  the  Pontifical  States  recentlv  absorbed  by  the 
kingdom  of  Italy-was  rcsture.l  to  his  throne  bv  the  pow- 
erful intervention  of  the  Duke  of  Ch  in.    In  recompense 
for  such  a  signal  service,  the  emperor  offered  him  a  slice 
of  land    The  duke  declined  it.f  and  asked,  instead,  that 
he  might  be  permitted  to  construct  his  tomb  after  the 
model  of  the  imperial  mausoleum.   The  emperor,  viewing 
this  apparently  modest  request  as  a  dangerous  assump- 
tion, promptly  refused  it,  and  the  duke  was  compelled  to 
abide  by  the  recf^ized  Code  of  Rites. 
The  possession  of  this  common  Code,  originating  in 

_  *  A  decenni.1  frihnte  mission  from  Burtnah  is  solemnly  prom- 
ised  111  a  trcnty  willi  Trent  Britain.  '  v  » 

t  According  to  snnio  of  ,hc  histories,  he  finally  accepted  it, 
when  balked  in  bis  loftier  aspirations. 


436 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


the  will  of  a  cnmninn  suzerain,  contributed  to  maintain 
tur  nearly  a  tliuiibaiul  years  among  the  States  of  China, 
discordant  and  belligerent  as  they  often  were,  a  bond  of 
svnipathv  in  strong  cnntrast  with  the  feelings  they  mani- 
fested toward  all  nations  not  coiuprelier.Jcd  within  the 
pale  of  their  o%vn  civilization.  When,  for  instance,  the 
Tartars  of  the  north-west  presented  themselves  at  the 
court  of  Ch'in,  requesting  a  treaty  of  peace  and 
amity,  and  humbly  ofTered  to  submit  to  be  treated  as 
vassals  of  the  more  enli,i;lUened  power, — "  Amity,"  ex- 
claimed the  prince,  "  what  do  they  know  of  amity  ?  The 
barbarous  savages !  Give  them  war  as  the  portion  due  to 
our  natural  enemies."  Nor  was  it  until  his  minister 
had  pniduced  the  solid  reasons  for  a  pacific  policy  that 
the  haughty  prnice  consented  to  accept  them  as  vassals. 

In  the  history  of  those  times,  the  curtain  rises  on  a 
scene  of  ])eaceful  int-rcourse  which,  in  many  ways,  im- 
plies a  basis  of  public  law.  Merchants  are  held  in  esteem, 
one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  the  disciples  of  Con- 
fucius bclongiiii,-^  to  that  class:  and  a  rivalry  subsists  be- 
tween the  several  princes  in  attracting  them  to  their 
States.  Their  wares  are  subjected  to  tolls  and  customs; 
but  the  object  is  revenue,  not  protection. 

The  commerce  of  mind  reveals  relations  of  a  still  more 
intimate  character.  The  schools  of  one  State  are  often 
largely  freciucnted  by  students  from  another;  and  those 
who  make  the  greatest  proficiency  arc  readily  taken  into 
the  service  of  foreign  princes.  Philosophers  and  political 
reformers  travel  from  court  to  court,  in  quest  of  patron- 
age. Confucius  himself  wanders  over  half  the  emiiirc, 
and  draws  disciples  from  all  the  leading  principaliiies. 

A  century  later,  Mencius,  with  the  spirit  of  a  Hebrew 
prophet,  proclaims  in  more  than  one  capital  his  great 


INTERNATIONA!.  LAW 


message  that  "  the  only  foundation  of  national  prosperity 
is  justice  and  charity." 

It  was  to  this  kind  of  intercourse  that  Ch'in,  the  rising 
power  of  the  North-west.  w:. ,  imlelited  for  the  ascnul- 
ency  which  it  slowly  acciuircd  iii  the  affairs  of  the  empire, 
and  which  eventually  placed  its  princes  in  possession  of 
the  imperial  throne,  its  rulers  havin-  adopteil  the  policy 
oi  seeking  the  best  talent  of  neighboring  States  for  viziers 
and  generals. 

1  lie  personal  intercourse  of  sovereign  princes  forms  a 
striking  feature  in  the  histor>-  of  those  times.  Their 
frequent  interchange  of  visits  indicates  a  degree  of  mu- 
tual confidence  which  speaks  volumes  for  the  public  senti- 
ment. Confidence  was,  indeed,  sometimes  abused,  as  it 
has  been  in  other  countries ;  but  such  intercourse  was  al- 
ways characterized  by  courtesy,  and  mostly  by  good  faith. 

On  one  occasion,  when  a  powerful  prince  came  with  a 
great  retinue  to  visit  the  Duke  of  Lu,  Confucius,  who 
was  Minister  of  Foreign  Af?a»rs.  adopted  such  precau- 
tions, and  conducted  the  interviews  with  such  adroitness, 
that  he  not  only  averted  what  was  believed  to  be  a  danger' 
but  induced  the  foreign  prince  to  restore  a  territory  which 
he  had  unjustly  appropriated. 

A  visit  of  the  Duke  cf  Ch'in  to  the  Duke  of  I.u  may 
be  mentioned,  as  illustrating  the  freedom  and  familiarity 
which  sometimes  marked  this  princely  intercourse.  The 
host  accompanied  his  guest  as  far  as  the  Yellow  River. 
The  latter,  learning  during  a  parting  entertainment  that 
the  former  had  not  yet  received  the  Kuan  li  *— a  rite  an- 

*  Kuan  /i-litcrally  the  "  c.ip  ceremony  "-th"  formal  assump- 
tion by  a  youth  of  a  kind  of  cap  distinctive  of  mature  age 
Now  completely  disused,  this  was  formerly  one  of  the  "  four 
great  rites,"  and  the  references  to  it  in  the  ancient  books  remind 


438  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


swering  in  the  case  of  nobles  somewhat  to  the  conferring 
of  knighthood — offered,  then  and  there,  to  confer  it.  It 
was  objected  that  the  ineaiis  wt  re  wanting  for  perform- 
ing the  ceremony  with  clue  solemnity ;  and  the  capital 
of  Wei  being  nearer  thai  his  own,  the  Duke  of  Lu  pro- 
posed to  proceed  thitlier  lor  tlie  purpose.  They  did  so, 
and  the  i  te  was  celebrated  with  suitable  pomp  in  a  temple 
borrowed  for  the  occasion. 

General  meetings  of  the  princes  for  the  purpose  of 
forming  or  renewing  treaties  of  alliance  were  of  frequent 
occurrence,  lin  .acing  what  were  then  regarded  as 
all  the  leading  powers  of  the  earth,  these  meetings  present 
a  distant,  but  not  faint,  parallel  to  the  great  congresses 
of  European  sovereigns. 

The  more  usual  form  of  friendly  intercourse  between 
the  States  of  China  was,  as  elsewhere,  by  means  of 
envoys. 

The  person  of  an  envoy  was  sacred ;  but  instances  are 
not  wanting  of  their  arrest  and  execution.  In  the  latter 
case,  tin  y  were  regarded  as  spies,  and  the  punishment 
inflicted  on  them  was  considered  as  a  declaration  or  act 
of  war.  In  the  former,  the  violence  was  sometimes  de- 
fended on  the  ground  that  the  envoy  liad  undenaken  to 
pass  through  the  territory  into  a  neighboring  State  witli- 
out  having  first  obtained  a  passport,  his  visit  being  at 
the  same  time  held  to  have  a  hostile  object.  Ordinarily, 
an  envoy  was  treated  ..ith  scrupulous  courtesy,  the  cere- 
monial varying  according  to  his  own  rank,  or  that  of  his 
sovereign.  Questions  of  pre'^edence,  which  often  arose, 
were  decided  according  to  sett  ed  principles  ;  but  the  rules 

us  of  the  pomp  with  which  the  tosa  virilis  was  assumed  by 
patrician  youth  at  Rome.  Still,  as  between  nobles,  I  can  think 
of  no  better  analogy  than  that  given  in  the  text 


INTERNATIONAL  LAW 

were  by  no  means  as  clear  and  simple  as  those  enacted  by 
tlR  Congress  of  Vienna.  ' 
A  ,lisp,„c.  of  this  kin.!  arising  between  the  envoys  of 
o  .Indues  at  tbe  court  of  Lu.  one  ciaime<I  precedence  on 
the  ground  that  his  State  was  more  ..cLnt  than  the 
oth  r.    1  Ik.  „„n,ster  of  the  latter  repHed  that  his  sover- 
ug^i  was  more  nearly  related  to  the  imperial  family.  The 
difficulty  was  happily   ternnnated   wuhout  bJdshed 
;v  nch  was  not  always  the  case  with  such  qua'ds  t' 

Iperor  ^'''''^"^  '°  of  the 

Insults  to  envoys  were  not  unfrequently  avenged  by 
an  appeal  t.  arms.    Of  this,  a  notable  instance  was  a^ 
•nsult  g.ven  by  the  Prince  of  Chi.  at  one  andihe 
turns  to  the  representatives  of  four  powers 

These  envoys  arriving  s.nn.ltaneously.  it  was  observed 

pea  ance.  One  was  bbnd  of  an  eye;  a  second  was  bald- 
another  u  as  lan.e ;  and  the  last  was  a  dwarf.  It  was  st^^' 
^•sted  to  the  duke  that  a  little  innocent  an,usemem  m  1' 
be  made  out  of  this  strange  coincidence.  The  pHnt 
actmg  on  the  hmt.  appointed  as  attendant  or  introduct  ur' 
to  each  ambassador  an  officer  who  suffered  from  Z 
same  defect.  The  court  ladies,  who.  conceld  Wcur! 
■nns  of  tlun  gauze,  witnessed  the  ceremony  of  intLuC 
>n  and  the  subsequent  banquet,  laughed  aloud  when 

d  "I  u  '^''^'"^  ^'^^  -"^J  the  dwarfs  the 

bald  and  the  lame,  walking  in  pairs.    The  envrys  heir 
.ng  he  merriment,  became  aware  that  they  hid  £  r^Z 
-voluntary  actors  in  a  comedy.  They'reU^^r^ 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


vengeance,  and  the  next  year  saw  the  capital  of  Or  be- 
leaguered by  the  combined  forces  of  the  fo"r  powers, 
which  were  only  hiduced  to  withdraw  b>  the  most  liu- 
niihating  concessions  on  the  part  of  the  young  prince, 
who.  too  late,  repented  his  indecent  levity.* 

In  the  history  of  Tso.  we  find  a  rule  for  the  sending  of 
envoys,  which  has  its  parallel  -n  t.ie  diplomatic  usage  of 
modern  nations.  Speaking  c  mission  to  a  neighboring 
State,  he  adds :  "  This  war  .cordance  with  usage.  In 
all  cases  where  a  new  prir  ,  comes  to  the  throne,  envoys 
are  sent  to  the  neighboring  States  to  confirm  and  extend 
the  friendly  relations  maintained  by  his  predecessor. 

The  highest  function  of  an  envoy  was  the  negcjtiation  of 
a  treaty.  Treaties  of  all  kinds  known  to  mo<'»m  diplo- 
macy were  in  use  in  ancient  China.  Signed  i  solemn 
formalities,  and  confirmed  by  an  oath.— the  parties  ming- 
ling their  blood  in  a  cup  of  wine,  or  laying  their  hands 
on  the  head  of  an  ox  to  be  offered  in  sacrifice,— such 
documents  were  carefully  treasured  up  in  a  sacred  place 
called  Mvng  Fii,  the  "  Palace  of  Treaties." 

We  are  able  to  give,  by  way  of  specimen,  the  outlines 
of  a  treaty  between  the  Prince  of  Cheng  and  a  coalition  of 
princes  who  invaded  his  territories  in  544  li.  f. 

PREAMBLE :— The  parties  to  the  present  Tre,nty  agree  to  the 
following  Articles; 

Article       I  — The  exportation  of  corn  shall  not  be  prohibited. 
Article     II.— One  party  shall  not  monopolize  trade  to  the  dis- 
advantage of  others. 

*  This  story  is  dt-rivrd  fn  ni  a  comparison  of  the  three  lead- 
ing historians  of  the  period,  who  differ  only  in  unimportant  de- 
tails. In  an  amplified  form,  it  is  to  be  seen  on  the  boards  of 
Chinese  theaters  at  the  present  day.  The  Chinese  theater,  like 
that  of  Greece,  is,  for  an  illiterate  public,  the  chief  teacher  of 
ancient  history. 


INTERNATIONAL  LAW  44, 

Article    IIL^No  one  ,hall  give  protection  to  conspiracies 

directed  against  the  others. 
Artice    IV.-Fugitives  from  justice  shall  be  surrendered 

vn  T."'"  ""^  insurrection. 
Anicie  Vll.-The  ec.ntract.ng  powers  shall  have  the  same 
A  •  1  '"ends  and  the  same  enemies. 

Article  VIIL^We  all  engage  to  support  the  Imperial  House. 

tbftJL?^^J?^  OATH.-We  engage  to  maintain  ..violate 
the  terms  o  the  forego.ng  Agreement.  May  the  gods  ol  the  hills 
and  rivers,  the  spirits  of  former  emperors  and  dukes,  and  the  an- 
cestors o  our  seven  tribes  and  twelve  states,  watch  over  its  fulfil- 
ment.     f  any  one  prove  unfaithful,  may  the  all-seeing  gods  smite 


The  outline  of  a  similar  conventic  is  given  by 
Mencuis.  On  tiiat  occasion,  the  great  bat  ns  were  called 
together  by  Hsiao  Po.  I-ri.,ce  of  Ch'i,  for  the  purpose  of 
effecting  needful  reforms  in  651  b.  c.  Being  a  century 
earlier  than  the  other,  it  is  instructive  to  compare  the 
two  documents.  While  in  that  of  later  date  the  Imperial 
authority  is  so  far  gone  that  the  barons  engage  to  imhold 
the  Imperial  House,  in  the  earlier  compact  the  authority 
of  the  Siizeram  is  fully  rcco-nizc.l.-each  article  of  the 
convention  being  styled  an  "  Ordinan.;  "  of  the 
Emperor. 

That  his  hold  on  his  vassals  was  already  much  weak- 
ened IS.  however,  evident  from  the  provisions  that  thev 
are  not  to  exercise  certain  powers  of  sovereignty  in  the 
way  of  reg  ards  and  purrishments,  without  at  least  formal 
reference  to  the  "  Son  of  Heaven." 

The  stipulations  are  partly  in  favor  of  good  morals 
and  partly  to  facilitate  intercourse,  and  to  raise  the  char- 
acter of  the  official  hierarchy. 


44* 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


Article     1.— To  iiunish  the  iinfilial :  not  to  change  the  nucces- 

sii.n  to  IIk-  tlirwiu-   (of  any  -tatc)  ;  and  not  to 
raisi-  a  coiuiiliiiu'  to  Ik-  a  wife. 
Article    II.— To  respect  llif  virtius  ami  duri^li  taliiit. 
Article  III.— To  honor  the  agcU  and  to  be  kind  lo  the  yo  iiiK. 

and  not  to  neglect  grangers. 
Article  IV.— OfTinrs  imt  to  be  hereditary;  proxies  not  to  be 
]H  riiiitlnl.    .Suitable  men  to  be  sought  and  found. 
Death  ii  't  to  Im  iiiilii  ted  on  nobles  without  refer- 
ence I"  the  Emperor. 
Article   V.— Not  to  divert   watcr-coiuses,   nor   obstruct  the 
transport  o£  grain.    Not  to  grant  land  in  fief 
without  reference  to  the  Emperor. 
CONCLUSION.— All  «c  who    re  parties  to  this  Covenant 
agree  to  be  at  peace  with  each  other. 

"These  five  nik's,"  a.ld-  i!ie  philosopher,  "  are  openly 
violated  by  the  nobles  of  ■  ir  day." 

in  addition  to  tlie  rites  of  relitjioii  hy  w  liich  such  cn- 
gagetneiUs  were  ralilieJ,  ihey  were  u.sually  secured  by 
sanctions  of  a  less  sentimental  character.  As  in  the 
West,  hostages  or  other  material  guarantees  were  given 
in  pledge;  sometimes  also  lliey  were  guaranteed  by  third 
parties,  who,  directly  or  indirectly  interested,  engaged  to 
punish  a  breach  of  faith.  We  have,  for  itistatue,  one 
prince,  demanding  the  mother  of  another  as  a  hostage. 
The  case  is  instructive  in  more  than  one  of  its  asi>ects. 
Tlie  Prince  of  Ch  in,  calling  on  the  Prince  of  t  hi  to 
recognize  hitn  as  his  chief,  and  to  surrender  his  mother 
as  a  pledge  of  submission,  the  latter  replies  that  his 
State  was  created  the  peer  of  the  other  by  th--  -.vin  of  the 
former  emperors,  and  that  one  who  would  despise  the 
patent  of  an  emperor  was  not  fit  to  be  the  head  of  a 
League.  As  to  the  demand  for  his  mother  as  a  hostage, 
that  was  a  proposition  so  nionstn'iis  that,  rather  than 
submit  to  it,  he  would  meet  the  enemy  under  the  walls 
of  his  last  fortress. 


INTERNA  I  ION AL  LAW  443 

At  thia  point,  the  allair  takrs  a  fiirn  uhicli  serves  to 
illustrate  a  proce<hire  of  fiiiiiiciit  uicuirciicc  in  the 
history  of  those  times.  The  primes  of  two  neighboring 
States  come  forw  vd  as  mediators,  an,|  I.rinjj  about  an 
accommodation  on  less  (jpj)ressive  conditions. 

The  m..re  enhghtcned  writers  of  Chinese  aiiii.|uity 
condemn  il„  pmcin  e  of  exchai.wi,,.  l„,s,a.ues.  as  tending 
to  keep  lip  a  state  of  quasi  iiustilily  and  iniiliial  mistrust. 
No  writers  of  any  nation  have  been  more  emphaiic  in 
insisting  on  goo,!  faiili  .,s  a  cardinal  virtue  it,  all  interna- 
tional transactions.  Says  Confucius:—-  A  man  withont 
faith  's  like  a  wagon  without  a  cuupling-pole  to  connect 
the  V  leels."  Speaking  of  a  .State,  he  says:—"  Of  the 
three  essentials,  the  greatest  is  .;,„.,1  faith.  WiMioiit  a 
revenue  and  without  an  army,  a  State  may  still  exist ;  but 
it  cannot  exist  uitlmnt  ^ood  faith." 

It  remains  to  speak  oi"  liie  iiiten-oitrse  of  war,  "  Inter 
hostes  scripta  jura  nan  vulcrc  ul  vaLrc  ,ton  scripta"— 
ts  a  principle  tliat  was  as  well  understootl  in  ancient 
•Chma  as  among  the  ancient  nations  of  the  Western 
world ;  an.l  war  in  e  liina  was.  to  say  the  least,  not  more 
brutal  than  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 

The  comman.l  of  Alex.inder  to  spare  the  honse  of  the 
poet  Pmdar,  if  it  shows  a  degree  of  literarv  culture  indi- 
cates, on  the  other  hand,  th.it  moral   uirharism  which 
asserts  a  right  to  the  spoils  of  the  conquered.    In  China 
we  find  the  same  state  of  things;  rw  is  the  .ad 

undertone  in  every  narrative  of  military  glorv.  relieved 
indeed,  by  brilliant  instances  of  generosity  and  mercy' 
We  find  an  invading  chief  enjoining,  under  i,enaltv  of 
death,  respect  for  the  very  trees  that  overshadow'  the 
tomb  of  a  philosopher,  and  at  the  same  time  setting  a 
pnce  on  th  ■  head  of  a  rival  prince. 

Every  military  leader  pr.xrlaims.  like  Achilles,  that 


444 


THE  LORE  OK  CATHa Y 


"  laws  arc  -lot  tuinU-  f-  r  him  ;  "  yet  we  do  not  despair  of 
he'mg  able  to  sliow  ili.it  laws  existed  in  war  as  will  in 
IH'aci',  i  viti  tlinii^jli  tlu\  u.Tf  -.N-^tfinatically  trampled  on. 
With  ihi.s  view,  wc  >ii;ill  call  attention  to  the  following 
facts : 

I'irsi:-  III  the  loiidiiit  of  war,  tlie  iuTsi  M>i  and  prop- 
erty of  non-comhatanls  were  ri(|iiireil  in  In.-  respected. 

This  we  infer  from  the  t)raise  l»e8towed  on  humane 
leaders,  and  the  rei)riil)iitioti  iiuu.l  cut  tn  tin-  cruel.  In 
Chinese  history,  the  e.xaiiiple  of  those  who  have  achievetl 
the  easiest  and  most  permanent  conquests  is  always  on 
the  sidi-  111'  himiaiiits 

.Vi.-oj/i/.— In  legitimate  vvarfare,  the  rule  was  not  to 
attack  an  enemy  without  first  sounding  the  drum,  and 
j;iviiiK  him  time  to  prepare  for  defense. 

Ilk'  follow  itig  instance  goes  lieyond  this  require- 
ment, and  reminds  us  of  the  code  of  chivalry  which  made 
it  infamous  to  take  advantage  of  an  antagonist.  The 
Prii  ce  of  Siuig  dediiied  to  engage  ,i  hostile  force  while 
they  were  crossing  a  stream,  and  wailed  for  them  to 
form  in  order  of  battle  Ijefore  giving  the  signal  to  ad- 
vance. 11c  was  luatiti.  and.  when  rc])roacheil  by  his 
ofirtcer>,  he  justified  himself  by  appealing  to  ancient  usage. 
"  The  true  soldier."  said  he,  "  never  strikes  a  wounded 
foe,  and  always  Ivi-.  the  gray-headed  l;o  free.  In  ancient 
times  it  was  forbidilen  to  assail  an  enemy  who  was  not  in 
a  state  to  resist.  I  have  come  near  losing  my  kingdom, 
but  I  would  scorn  to  command  an  attack  without  first 
sounding  the  drum." 

We  are  not  surprised  to  learn  that  the  captains  of 
that  age  '  laughed  at  the  simplicity  of  the  unfortunate 
prince." 

.\fter  the  battle  of  Agincourt  the  French  commander 
might  have  Iwcn  laughed  at  on  the  same  grounds.  Not 


1 


INI  ERNATF    NAL  LAW 


445 


only  did  he  allow  tlic  I  jikI.sIi  i..  cross  ihv  S,.,„nu-,  lu-  even 
•Ncnt  a  mcssafrt-  to  tlic  Kuik  asking  iiiin  to  name  a  day  for 
the  en>;;a>,'cnKnl. 

Thinl.—A  war  was  not  to  be  undertaken  without  at 
least  a  decent  |)retext. 

These  words,  in  fact,  are  almost  a  translation  of  an 
oft-qi.  ,le.I  maxim,  SInh  ./,  ;,  v/<  inhii^.  "  |-,,r  war  you 
nius  have  a  cause  tl.at  may  k-  named."  This  in,lirales 
that  passion  and  cupi.lity  were  held  in  check  hy  public 
opini.m  ,,r,,nuunni,K'  jii.i;,Mnent  in  conformity  with  an 
acknuvvledjrcd  .standard  of  riKiit. 

Another  .t^axim,  equally  well  known,  makes  the  justice 
of  tiir  cause  a  source  of  moral  jwwer  which  goes  far  to 
ccmpvnsate  the  inequality  of  ph\sical  f.me. 

"  Soldiers  are  weak  in  a  bad  cause,  but  strong  in  a 
good  one."  said  the  ancient  Chinese,  assigning  as  high  a 
place  to  the  moral  element  as  ot,r  own  p,,et.  when  he 
sa>^.— "  Thrice  is  he  armed  who  hath  his  quarrel  just." 

Fourth  — A  cause  always  recognized  as  just  was  the 
preservation  of  the  balance  of  power. 

This  principle  called  to  arms  not  merf'y  the  'States 
immediately  threatened,  bt.i  those  also  \  h  by  their 
situation,  apijcared  to  be  reiimtc-  from  dan^  . 

Not  to  speak  of  combinations  to  .esi  ;  the  aggressions 
of  other  disturbers  of  the  public  pt-,ce.  v:c  find  320  c 

^u.-^'^^u.'""'"''"        "'^'^  *°  'l'^-  '-""bition 

Chin.  This  powerful  cu  'on,  the  fi.it  of  twenty  years' 
toil  on  the  part  of  one  man.  who  is  imm()rtali^ed  as  the 
type  of  the  siuc.Nsful  negotiator,  was.  we  may  add  after 
all  destmcd  to  fail  „f  its  ..bject.  The  cnmnmn  eiunu 
succeeded  in  detaching  the  members  of  the  league  and 
in  overcoming  them  one  after  another.  The  arch  of 
States  uhic),  protu-ted  the  throne  of  their  suzerain  be- 
ing destroyed,  the  conqueror  swept  away  the  last  vestige 


) 


446  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


of  the  house  of  Chou,  which  for  upwards  of  eight  hun- 
dred years  had  exercised  a  iciulal  siiiircinacy  over  the 
princes  of  i^'liina.  I'nxlair.iini^  himself  \indcr  the  title  of 
Shili  Hiuing  Tt,  tlie  "  first  of  the  auUH  ratic  sovereigns," 
he  abolished  the  feudal  constitution  of  the  empire,  at  the 
same  tinu'  lliat  he  completed  the  ( Ireat  Wall.  His  suc- 
cessors to  the  present  day  arc  called  Huang  Ti,  and  tlie 
system  of  centralized  government  which  he  inaugurated 
is  as  iinnlv  esUihlished  as  the  Clrcat  Wall  itself. 

/.•,|//,;__'l  l,e  riglit  of  existence,  prior  to  the  revolution 
just  noticed,  was,  in  general,  held  sacred  for  the  greater 
otates  which  held  in  iief  from  the  Imperial  Tiucne. 

This  ri.t,'lit  is  ofteil  appealed  to,  and  proves  effectual  in 
the  direst  extremity  ;  e.  5;- — the  Prince  of  Ch'i,  at  the 
head  of  a  strong  force,  enters  Lu,  with  an  evidently 
hostile  intent.  Chan  lisi,  a  minister  of  Lu,  is  sent  to  meet 
him,  in  the  hope  of  arresting  his  progress.  "  The  pi  .pie 
of  Lu  appear  to  be  very  much  alarmed  at  my  approach," 
sai  l  the  prince.  "  True,"  replied  the  minister.  "  the  people 
are  alarmed,  but  the  ruler  is  not."  "  Why  is  not  the  ruler 
also,"  inquired  the  invader,  "  when  his  troops  are  in 
disorder,  and  his  magazines  as'empty  as  a  hell?  On  what 
does  he  reiK«e  his  confidence  that  he  should  affect  to  be 
superior  to  fear?  " 

"lie  rests  on  the  grant  which  his  fathers  received 
from  the  ancient  emperors,"  said  the  minister.  He  then 
proceeded  to  vindicate  the  rights  of  his  master,  under 
what  was  recognized  as  the  traditional  law  of  the  em- 
pire, with  such  force  that  the  prince  desisted  from  his 
purpose,  and  withdrew  without  any  further  act  of 
violence. 

A  similar  instance,  it  .vill  he  remembered,  has  been 
cited  already  in  anniher  connection, — the  ca.se  in  which 
a  prince,  after  urging  in  vain  this  same  plea, — the  sacred- 


INTERNATIONAL  LAW  447 

ness  of  the  imperial  grant —was  saved  from  humiliation  or 
extinction  b)  the  nictHation  of  neighboring  powers,  who 
recognized  and  were  determined  to  uphold  the  princiole. 

A  third  example  of  the  kind  is  one  in  which  the  exist- 
ence of  the  now  feeble  remnant  of  the  imperial  domain 
was  itself  at  stake.   The  Prince  of  Ch\i.  after  a  victorious 
campaign  against  other  foes,  crossed  the  Rubicon  and 
entered  the  territories  of  the  house  of  Chou,  with  the 
evident  imeiiti(jn  of  seizing  the  imperial  throne.  The 
emperor,  unable  to  oppose  armed  resistance,  dispatched 
Wang  Sun  Man,  one  of  his  ministers,  to  convey  a  supply 
of  provisions  to  tlie  invading  army,  and  to  ascertain  the 
designs  of  its  leader.    Tlie  latter  veiled  iiis  purpose  in 
figurative  language,  asking  to  I)e  informed  as  to  the 
"  weight  of  the  nine  tripods,"— insinuating  that,  if  not 
too  heavy,  he  intended  to  carry  them  away.    The  min- 
ister, without  answering  directly,  gave  the  history  of 
the  tripods,  relating  how  they  had  been  cast  in  bronze 
by  Ta  Yu,  the  founder  of  tiie  first  great  dynastv,  and 
emblazoned  wiili  a  chart  of  the  empire  in  relief ;  how  for 
fifteen  centuries  they  had  been  preserved  as  emblems 
of  the  imperial  dignity;  and,  exposing  in  a  masterly 
manner  the  necessity  of  respect  for  that  venerable  power 
to  the  order  of  the  several  States,  he  concluded  by  saying 
--"  Al!  this  l)eing  true,  why  should  Your  Highness  ask 
the  weight  of  the  tripods.'' " 

The  chief,  struck  by  the  force  of  his  arguments,  which, 
like  the  most  effective  on  such  occasions,  were  purely 
historical,  renounce  i  his  nefarious  purpose,  and  retired 
to  his  owr  dominions. 

5'Mr/A.— Finally,  the  rights  of  neutrals  were  admitted, 
and  to  a  certain  extent  respected. 

It  has  been  remarked  that,  in  the  wars  of  Greece,  there 
were  no  neutrals.  Those  who  desired  to  be  such,  if  they 


448  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

were  so  situated  as  to  he  of  any  weight  in  the  conflict, 
were  always  compelled  lo  declare  themselves  on  one  side 
or  the  other.   This  was  not  the  case  in  China.    I  he  neu- 
tral fre.HRinlv  rejected  the  overtures  of  both  parties,  and 
his  territories  interposed  an  effectual  barrier  m  the  way 
of  the  belligerents.   We  have  numerous  instances  of  pas- 
sage bemg  granted  to  troops  without  further  participation 
in  the  conthct,  and  one  case  in  which  a  wise  statesman 
warns  his  master  against  the  danger  of  such  an  impru- 
dent concession.    "  In  a  former  war,"  said  he,  "  you 
granted  it  to  your  detriment;  if  you  do  so  again,  it  will 
be  to  your  ruin."   His  chief  failed  to  profit  by  the  warn- 
ing; and  the  prince  thus  unjustly  favored,  after  destroy- 
ing his  antagonist,  turned  about  and  took  possession  of 
the  territory  of  his  friend. 

CONCLUSION. 

It  is,  as  we  have  intimated,  quite  possible  that  text- 
books on  the  subject  of  intematiwial  relations  may  have 

existed  in  ancient  China,  without  coming  down  to  our 
times,  just  as  the  Greeks  had  books  on  that  subject,  of 
which  nothing  now  survives  but  their  titles.  Whether 
this  conjecture  be  well  founded  or  otherwise,  enough  re- 
n-.ains.  as  we  have  shown,  to  prove  that  the  States  of 
ancient  China  had  a  Law  written  or  unwritten,  and  more 
or  less  developed,  which  they  recognized  in  peace  an.l 
war.  The  Book  of  Rites  and  the  Histories  of  the  period 
attest  this. 

Of  these  histories,  one  was  acknowledged  as  constitu- 
ting in  itself  a  kind  of  international  co.le.  I  allude  to  the 
Annals  of  Lii  edited  by  Confucius  and  extending  over 
two  centuries  and  a  half.  Native  authors  affirm  that  the 
awards  of  praise  and  Manic  cvprcssed  in  that  work,  often 
in  a  single  word,  were  accepted  as  judgments  from  which 


INTERNATIONAL  LAW 


there  was  no  appeal,  and  exercised  a  restraining  influ- 
ence more  potent  than  that  of  armies  and  navies. 

Chinese  statesmen  have  pointed  out  the  analogy  of  their 
own  country  at  that  epoch  with  the  political  divisions  of 
modem  Europe.  In  their  own  records,  they  find  usages, 
words,  and  ideas,  corresponding  to  the  terms  of  our 
modern  international  law ;  and  they  are  by  that  fact  the 
more  disposed  to  accept  the  international  code  of  Christen- 
dom, which,  it  is  no  Utopian  vision  to  believe,  will  one 
day  beccMne  a  bond  of  peace  and  justice  between  all  the 
nations  of  the  earth. 


XXIII 


Dl 


I'LOMACY  IN  ANCIENT  CHINA 


INTERNATK  )NAL  ilipUmiacy  is  an  art  new  to  ti  e 
Chinese,  but  one  iur  wliicli  they  evince  a  marvel- 
lous aptitude.  From  tlie  inquiry  on  whicli  we  are 
about  to  enter,  it  uill.  ue  think,  he  made  apparent  that 
with  them  it  is  rather  the  revival  of  a  lost  art.— an  art  m 
the  creation  of  which  they  can  claim  the  distmction  of 
precedence  over  all  existiuR  nations. 

Under  that  famous  dynasty  of  Chou  when  sages  were 
born,  and  when  those  books  were  produced  which  rule 
the  thought  of  the  empire.  .lii)loiiiacy  took  its  rise.  Akm 
to  the  '^]r  it  of  war,  it  flourished  most  in  that  period  when 
the  central  power  had  lost  its  control,  and  vassal  states 
engaged  in  ceaseless  struggles  over  the  division  of  their 

patrimony.*  .       ,     .  .t. 

Diplomacy  may  be  defined  as  the  art  of  conducting  the 
intercourse  of  nations.   It  supposes  the  existence  of  states 

*  There  are  three  well  known  works  that  relate  to  this  period, 

VIZ  _  ,  „ 

The  History  of  the  Warrins  S/aUs.  called  C/-a«  Kuo  Ts  e 

A  Romance  founded  on  th.  preceding,  called  /.u  /.  Kuo  Ch,h, 
an  expanded  history  of  the  feudal  ap;e^ 

The  National  History  of  Sze  Ma,  called  Shth  Cht. 

As  an  authoritv.  the  Romarxce  is  of  no  value.  The  Na^^o^ 
History  derive,  its  materials  from  the  same  source  as  the  Other 
two  works,  but.  as  they  have  been  passed  through  the  Sieve  and 
weighed  in  the  balance  n{  the  great  author,  I  have  taken  it  for 
my  guide  so  far  as  facts  are  concerned,  reserving  to  myself 
always  the  right  of  interpretation. 

450 


DIPLOMACY  IN  ANCIEN  T  CHINA 


whicIi  carry  on  their  intercourse  on  a  looting  of  equality. 
This  makes  it  evident  why  it  Nourished  in  tlie  period 
referred  to,  and  why  it  disa[)pearcd  for  two  thousand 
years,  to  reappear  in  our  own  day.  l:k(  i  river  that,  after 
flowing  for  a  time  underground,  rises  lo  the  surface  with 
an  ii.crease  of  volume.  As  etiquette  is  the  outgrowth  of 
a  society  of  individuals,  so  diploinacv  springs  from  a 
society  of  states.  Robinson  Crusoe,  spending  his  life  on 
lonely  island,  can  hardly  be  supposed  to  occupy  his 
thou-hi'-  uitli  tlir  niUs  ot  good  hrceding,  and,  althoup-h 
"  Monarch  of  a"  he  .  ..veyed,"  he  had  no  use  for  diplo- 
macy. 

Tlie  tiiiimph  of  Ch'in,  hy  wliioli  lliesc  iiuniorous  States 
were  swept  from  the  arena,  was  the  death-blow  of 
diplomacy. 

The  einiiir-'  was  thenceforth  one  nnd  indivisible,  from 
the  desert  of  Tartary  to  the  borders  of  Ytiinian,  and  from 
the  foot  of  the  Himalayas  to  the  sho.  os  of  the  eastern 
sea.  No  rival,  no  equal,  was  known  to  exist  on  the  face 
of  the  glol)e.  Flnvoys  no  longer  sped  on  secret  missions 
from  court  to  court.  Alliances  ceased  to  be  formed  be- 
cause there  was  none  whose  friendship  could  bring 
strength,  or  whose  opposition  could  occasion  danger. 
The  outside  world  was  sy  nonymous  uith  barbarism,  and 
the  "  inner  land  "  comprised,  for  the  Chinese,  the  whole 
of  human  civilization.  In'^erior  states  came  with  tribute, 
and  went  home  laden  with  patronizing  gifts.  Dijiloniacy 
in  any  proper  sense  was  im{)ossible.  All  that  the  Chinese 
of  later  ages  could  know  of  it  was  a  legend  of  the  past, 
which  connected  itself  with  a  few  illustrious  names. 

The  best  way  to  treat  the  subject  will  be  to  t..ke  up 
those  "  narties,"  and  evoke  from  them  the  busy  actors  in 
a  slow  but  nmmontous  revcilution. 

The  revolution,  which  some  of  them  endeavoured  to 


452  THE  LORE  OK  CATHAY 

further,  while  others  strove  in  vain  to  arrest,  was  th? 
rise  in  the  north-west  of  an  ambitious,  aggressive,  semi- 
barbarous  power,  which  eventually  swallowed  up  its 
rivals,  and  remained  sole  master  of  the  field. 

To  trace  the  steps  by  which  a  petty  principality,  the 
guardian  of  a  remote  frontier,  advanced  to  such  enu- 
tietice  that  all  the  older  and  more  civilized  states  com- 
bined to  check  its  progress,  forms  one  of  the  most  in- 
structive chapters  of  Chinese  history.    Of  the  early 
stages  of  the  unfolding  drama,  we  can  only  remark  that, 
as  in  the  later  stage,  the  principal  actors  on  the  side  of 
the  growing  power  appear  to  have  been  foreigners.  The 
princes  of  Ch'in,  rude  and  uncultivated  as  they  were, 
displayed  for  the  most  part  that  element  of  greatness, 
which'  consists  in  the  choice  of  the  fittest  instruments. 
The  Duke  Hsiao  (368  b.  c),  conscious  of  the  backward 
state  of  his  people,  made  proclamation  that  if  any  man, 
native  or  foreign,  should  devise  a  new  method  for  pro- 
moting the  prosperity  of  his  dominions,  he  would  be  re- 
warded by  a  grant  of  laud  and  a  patent  of  nobility. 

One  instance  out  of  many  will  suffice  to  illustrate  the 
effect  of  this  policy.  A  young  man  by  the  name  of 
Shang  Yang,  who  had  devoted  himself  to  the  .study  of 
political  science,  came  to  the  court  of  Wei,  his  native 
state,  in  quest  of  employment.  The  prince  was  struck 
by  his  talents,  but  hesitated  to  take  him  into  his  ,sc-,-vice. 
"  Kill  him  then,"  said  an  old  minister,  '"  but  by  no  means 
allow  h'ni  to  give  his  great  abilities  to  the  service  of  a 
rival  state."  The  prince  did  neither,  and  Shang  Yang 
proceeded  to  the  court  of  Ch'in,  where  he  was  invested 
with  high  office,  atul  reformed  everything,  from  army 
discipline  to  land  tetuire.  It  was  largely  through  bis 
influence  that  hi^  adojited  country  attained  such  power 
as  to  threaten  the  independence  of  its  neighbors. 


DIPLOMACY  IN  ANCIENT  CHINA  453 


Jt  was  then  that  diplomacy  came  on  the  stage  as  a 

leading  factor  in  deciding  the  destiny  of  states.  In  more 
tranquil  periods,  it  had  occupied  itself  witli  matters  of 
ceremony, — missions  of  conpliment  to  express  felicita- 
tion or  condoUiK-e;  or,  if  negotiation  was  engaged  in,  it 
seldom  rose  higher  than  the  arrangcineiU  of  tiie  terms  of 
a  marriage.  But  now  tlie  diplomat  became  the  most 
conspicuous  figure  of  the  age,  rising  ahove  the  general, 
because  generals  marched  as  be  directed  ;  mon^  influential 
than  princes,  because  the  prince  decidei!  in  accordance 
with  the  far-sighted  views  of  his  diplomatic  adviser. 
Jove  sat  wrapped  in  his  pavilion  of  clouds,  ami  Meicurv 
engrossed  the  scene  as  he  sped  back  and  forth  on  winged 
sandals. 

If  we  follow  some  of  these  (Mivoys,  we  shall  not  only 
obtain  an  impression  of  the  importance  of  their  functions, 
but  get  a  clearer  view  of  the  history  of  the  period  than 
any  other  stand-point  can  aflFord  us. 

The  scene  is  that  portion  of  China  lying  to  the  north 
of  the  river  Yangtze;  the  period  of  time,  that  in  which 
Alexander  and  his  successors  were  extending  their  con- 
quests in  western  Asia. 

The  first  diplomats  to  challenge  our  attention  are  Su 
Ch  in  and  Chang  I.  They  are  not,  h  e  Talthybius  and 
Eurybates,*  mere  heralds  or  post-boys,  whose  duty  it  is 
to  cany  a  message,  and  blow  a  trumpet.  They  are  states- 
men, full  of  self-acting  ei.ergy;  and  each  opposed  to  the 
other  in  a  conflict  that  ends  only  with  life.  .\s  ;.i  Greece, 
there  was  a  school  of  statesmanship  in  which  they  ac- 
quired their  arts,  anrl  above  all  the  art  of  persuasion. 
The  .Academy  to  which  they  resorted  was  a  wild  gorge 
in  the  mountains  of  Ilonan,  and  the  master  to  whr)se  in- 

*  Compare  this  lattt-r  name.  ineaniiiK  "  one  who  walks  abroad," 
with  "  walkers,"— ancient  Chinese  for  "  envoys." 


454  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

structions  tlicy  listened  is  known  to  ixwterity  by  no  other 
name  than  that  of  Kuei  Ku  Tze,  "  Philosopher  of  the 

Devil's  Hollow." 

I  have  read  the  books  ascribed  to  bis  pen,  but  find  in 
them  nothing  that  can  account  for  the  eniineiae  of  his 
disciples;— notliiiiK  even  iliat  could  bave  afforded  them 
a  suggestion  of  the  career  which  ibey  pursued  with  such 
wonderful  success.  The  fact  is.  this  lover  of  solitude 
was  not  a  diplomatist,  but  an  educator.  Uooks  were  few 
in  those  dav.^,  existing  only  in  manuscript  copies;  and 
the  knowledge  of  letters,  very  restricted.  It  follows  that 
the  influence  of  the  teacher  was  greater  than  it  now  is. 
when  bot)ks  are  cheap,  and  libraries  accessible  to  all. 

Emerging  from  seclusion  with  the  full  consciousness 
of  superior  intelligence.  Su  Ch'in  thought  only  of  carry- 
ing bis  wares  to  tlie  most  ])romising  market.  That 
market  was  the  court  of  the  rude,  rising  power  of  the 
northwest,  whose  princes  welcomed  all  who  bad  anytbing 
to  teacli,  and  rewarded  tbem  with  unexampled  munifi- 
cence. He  was  a  native  of  the  central  state,  born  under 
the  immediate  sway  of  the  suzerain;  but  he  did  not 
scruple  to  iK.int  out,  to  a  great  vassal,  the  way  in  wbicli 
he  might  crush  all  lesser  rivals,  and  possess  himself  of 
the  throne  of  his  imperial  master.  "  My  wings,"  replied 
tbe  P-'nce,  "are  not  suffi'-'eiitly  grown  for  so  bigb  a 
fliglit ;  "  and  so  be  dismissed  the  dusty  traveller,  who 
souglit  prematurely  to  embroil  him  with  his  fellow 
princes. 

Mortified  bv  ill  success,  Su  turned  homeward,  vowing 
that  tbe  Prince  of  Ch  in  should  repent  the  blunder  of 
suffering  him  to  escape,  after  having  rejected  his  advice. 
Arrivini;  in  rags,  bis  wife  and  l.'s  brothers'  wives  treated 
bini  with  ill-concealed  disrespect.  They  looked  on  him 
as  stark  mad  when,  instead  of  applying  himself  to  some- 


DIPLOMACY  IN  ANCIENT  CHINA  455 

thing  profitable,  he  resumed  his  former  studies  with 
fri-sli  anlcif 

Su  not  only  took  pains  to  improve  Iiis  style  of  spenk- 
inp  and  writing,  so  that  his  argument  wiiuUl  come  witli 
fnra-  from  loiigiie  or  pen;  he  stiulied  the  history  of  each 
of  the  feudal  states,  ac(,uainied  himself  wiili  the  per- 
sonnel of  their  courts,  .irew  maps  of  the  empire,  made 
estmiates  of  the  population  and  military  strength  of  its 
several  parts,  ami  sketched  plans  of  hypothetical  cam- 
paigns. 

After  two  years  of  intense  application,  he  set  off  for 

the  court  of  Ven,  with  a  miiid  better  furnished  than  on 
the  occasion  of  liis  first  abortive  attempt.  The  capital 
of  Yen  is  represented  by  Peking,  and  there  it  was  that 
Su  entered  a  career  of  successful  diplotuacv,  which 
extended  over  more  than  twenty  vears.  and  ma.le  iiim  for 
all  time  tlie  type  of  a  Chinese  diplomat.  His  patience, 
witli  Inni  a  leading  virtue,  was  still  to  be  sorely  tried' 
Wuhout  money  or  influence,  lie  found  no  ready  way 
to  open  the  doors  cf  the  great ;  and,  for  a  whole  year,  he 
danced  attendance  on  numerous  courtiers,  before  he  could 
induce  anyone  to  procure  him  an  interview  with  the 
Prince. 

That  interview  was  decisive.   Su  was  not  the  only  one 

who  saw  the  danj^er  to  which  the  other  states  were  ex- 
posed by  the  aggressions  of  Ch'in,  but  he  was  the  only 
one  who  saw  how  it  could  be  averted.  In  eloquent  terms 
he  set  fortl,  the  urgency  of  immediate  action,  and  showed 
tiiat  the  t)nly  hope  of  successful  resii,tance  lay  in  the  for- 
mation of  an  alliance,  which,  diverting  the  forces  of  the 
SIX  states  from  the  mad  work  of  mutual  destruction, 
would  turn  their  united  strength  against  their  common 
foe. 

The  Prince  was  delighted.    The  feasibility  of  the 


4s6  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

scheme  was  no  longer  doubtful;  and,  by  carryinp  it  into 
ixiiution,  he  wduld  secure  the  honor  of  taking  the  lead 
in  a  patriotic  movement  of  unparalleled  importance.  In- 
vesting Su  with  the  rank  of  ambassador,  he  despatched 
liim  with  Rcner.-il  oredcntiaK  to  the  courts  of  the  other 
five  powers —a  precedent  wliich  ilie  Chinese  ministers  of 
our  day  recalled  when  they  sent  Mr.  Burlingame  on  a 
mission  to  tlie  Rrcat  powers  of  tin-  two  worlds,— a  prece- 
dent which  they  still  follow  in  accrediting  a  single  envoy 
to  half  the  courts  of  Europe. 

Taking  in  order  the  courts  of  Cliao,  llan,  and  Wei,  and 
then  luoving  eastward  to  the  court  of  Ch'i,  Su  exposed 
to  each  his  plan  of  mutual  defence,  obtaining  from  each 
a  pledge  conditioned  on  the  adliesion  of  all  the  rest. 
Further  south,  on  the  banks  of  the  middle  Yangtze, 
which  then  formed  the  southern  limit  of  the  empire  and  of 
civilization,  was  a  power  whose  definite  acceptance  of  the 
plan  was  essential  to  its  success.  This  was  the  kingdom 
of  Ch'u,  occupying  nearly  the  ground  of  the  present 
province  of  Hupei. 

Flattered  by  the  cunning  envoy  with  the  hope  of  be- 
coming head  of  the  league,  the  Prince  of  Ch'u  entered 
into  it  with  great  zeal,  and  sent  Su  on  his  return  journey, 
loaded  with  fre  honors.  The  last  link  was  thus 
added  to  a  chain  which  he  had  been  long  and  patiently 
forging,— a  chain  strong  enough  to  keep  an  unscrupulous 
aggressor  within  bounds,  and  to  secure  in  a  jrreat  meas- 
u.e  the  blessings  of  peace  to  a  family  of  states  hitherto 
in  perpetual  conflict. 

The  achievement  was  one,  the  difficulty  and  trrandeur 
of  which  it  is  not  easy  to  over-estimate.  The  man  who 
conceived  the  plan,  and,  with  steady  purpose,  carried  it 
through,  deserved  all  the  honors  that  w  ere  beaiiod  upon 
him.    Like  Prince  Bismarck,  who,  to  the  chancellorship 


DIPLOMACY  IN  ANCIENT  CHINA  457 

of  the  empire,  added  that  of  the  kingdom  (,f  I'russia.  Su 
lu-Irl  a  .lMi)liaiti-,  or  ratlu-r  a  multiple  office.  His  chief 
dignity  was  tliat  of  I'rcsideiit  ..f  ilu-  Si-xtuplc  Alliance- 
and,  in  order  that  he  might  reiuicr  it  effective,  each  of 
the  SIX  powers  conferred  on  hhn  the  seal  of  a  separate 
Chancellorship. 

Turning  nortlnvar.l  with  a  strung  escort  and  immense 
retinue,  he  came  to  the  border  of  his  native  state,  which, 
years  before,  he  had  .[uitted  in  the  guise  of  a  palmer 
«afT  m  hand.  Here  he  was  met  l.v  messengers  from  the 
Emperor,  who  oflFered  him  a  ban.juet,  and  gave  him  a 
welcome  on  behalf  of  their  master,  who.  says  the  his- 
torian, ••  was  alarmed  at  the  powe  r  and  magnificence  of 
his  quondam  subject."  A  better  exi^lanation  would  be  a 
generous  acknowledgment  of  the  success  of  Su  Ch'in- 
or  better  stiH.  a  desire  to  make  use  of  .Su's  .liplomati' 
triumphs  to  restore  the  sinking  prestige  of  th.  empire, 
menaced  by  the  growing  power  of  Ch'in. 

What  wonder  that  the  members  of  his  own  f.miily 
who  had  treated  him  so  shabbily,  should  now  meet  him 
with  demonstrations  of  respect!  "How  comes  it."  he 
said  to  his  elder  brother's  wife,  who  was  throwing  her- 
self at  his  feet.  "  that  you  treat  me  so  differently  to-day 
from  the  time  when  I  came  home  from  the  first  journey  >  " 
Because,  .sai,!  she  with  naive  candor,  "you  are  now 
a  great  officer  and  have  plenty  of  money  " 

Su  was  kind  to  his  poor  relations,  and.  distributing 
money  with  a  lavish  hand,  proceeded  to  the  Court  of 

There  it  was  that  he  fhced  his  headquarters;  not  that 
kingdom  was  great,  or  the  prince  influential,  but 
because  its  geographical  sittiation  was  such  as  to  m-ike 
It.  to  borrow  a  scientific  phrase,  the  centre  of  political 
pressure.    "From  this  point."  says  the  historian,  'by 


•!     3  n 

I  .  'If 
if  MU 


11  '1. 


If'     !  ■ 

i  J. 


I 


/ 


•  I 


II 


4S8 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


the  hand  of  a  herald,  he  launched  at  the  Prince  of  Ch  m 
a  copy  of  the  six-foW  League."  Imagine  the  satisfac- 
tion with  which  he  suhmitto!  that  diKununt  to  the  in- 
spection of  a  potentate  wliu  had  rejected  his  servues. 
and  who  was  now  to  be  confined  by  it.  as  with  a  .ham. 
within  his  proper  bounds!  '•  l""r  fifteen  \ears,"  a.Ms  the 
historian.  "  the  armies  of  C  h  in  did  not  .lare  to  jihow 
tluniselves  Iwyond  the  mountain  pass  of  Han  Ku." 

What  proof  of  success  could  he  UK.re  striking!  What 
doubt  that,  during  this  long  jx;riod.  Su  ha.l  occasion  to 
repeat  often  and  a>;ain  his  weary  circuit,  in  order  to 
maintain  his  hold  on  the  iiiharnionious  elements  which 
he  had  brought  mnU-r  hi»  control! 

Un  the  East  coast  of  Africa,  there  are  places  in  which, 
we  are  told,  it  is  impossible  to  induce  three  nun  t..  i,'o 
together  on  an  errand,  because  each  fears  that  the  oth.r 
two  may  combine  and  sell  him  into  slavery.  So  it  was 
with  these  "  warring  states."  as  they  are  called  in  Chinese 
history.  Each  one  n  parded  its  nearest  neighbors  with 
profound  disTust  and  aversion. 

To  overcome  their  centrifugal  tendencies,  and  hold 
them  together  for  so  long  a  time,  required  a  coinhination 
of  qmlitics  rarely  equaled,  perhaps  never  surpassed. 

The  masterly  arguments,  by  which  Su  had  originally 
conquered  that  ascendancy,  are  jjiven  in  extenso  in  the 
voluminous  work  of  Sze  Ma  Ch'ien.  They  are  clear  and 
eloquent,  but  they  reail  more  like  genuine  state  papers 
than  like  the  speeches  that  Livy  is  wont  to  put  into  the 
mouths  of  his  heroes. 

How  skilfully  he  adapts  his  mode  of  address  to  the 
disposition  of  each  ruler!  In  one  he  kindles  ambition ;  in 
another  he  awaken',  j.-alousy,  his  sf  ongcst  passion, 
and  directs  it  against  the  mighty  foe.  lie  practices  on 
the  fears  of  others,  while  flattering  their  pride;  and  one 


DIPLOMACY  IN  ANCIENT  CHINA  459 

(the  Prince  of  Han),  who  wan  on  the  point  of  attaching 

himself  to  Cli'iti.  In-  ditirrcd  eflfectually  by  employing'  a 
proverb  which,  from  that  fact,  has  naniircd  an  imdvuur 
celebrity :—"  lietfcr  be  a  chickcii'-s  licad  tliaii  an  ox's 
tail,"  or.  as  (  i  sar  |)uts  it.  "  Fitr»t  in  a  village  rather  than 
Becond  at  Ronu-." 

Su's  brother,  Sii  I'ai.  was  also  an  able  (liplomat,  and 
Kavf  him  eflfertual  assistance  in  bringing  about  the  nnion 
01  tile  lowers.  l!iit  f  speak  of  liiiii  at  prcMiit  for  the 
sake  of  citing  a  famous  aj>olo>,'iie.  of  which  lie  is  t!t.- 
author.  History  has  not  preserved  any  of  his  Imin,  r 
s|u'fch(>s.  FIc  was  pirhaps  wanting  in  tliat  lofty  elo- 
quence for  which  the  elder  Su  was  so  distinguished,  hut 
he  was  endowed  with  a  certain  homely  wit  that  carried 
conviction  Discoursing  wilh  one  of  the  jjrinces  on  the 
danger  of  disunion,  he  said:—"  .\.s  I  walked  on  tiie  hank 
of  the  river,  I  saw  a  bird  pecking  at  an  oyster;  the 
oyster  closed  its  shell,  and  held  the  bird  as  in  a  vice. 
Just  then,  a  fisherman  came  along,  and  captured  hoth." 
The  application  was  clear ;  whoever  might  be  represented 
by  the  foolish  fowl  and  the  equally  foolish  shell-fish,  there 
could  he  no  doubt  as  to  who  nas  the  hicky  fisliernian. 
In  a  concise  form,  this  fable  continues  to  lie  used  as  a 
proverb.*  It  is  one  of  those  shining  nuf  ,.  ts  which,  iu 
Chin?,  the  departing  stream  of  time  has  left  so  plentifully 
scattered  among  its  sands. 

Of  the  elder  Su.  I  have  said  enough  to  establish  his 
claim  to  transcendent  talents.  What  was  the  League 
itself  hut  a  creation  of  genius?  And  its  niaintenance  for 
fifteen  years,  was  it  not  a  marvelous  manifestation  of 
power?  Yet,  like  other  great  men,  he  had  his  weak- 
nesses. Able  in  governing  others,  ho  was  impotent  to 
control  his  own  passions ;  and  to  that  cause,  more  than  to 

♦  When  bird  and  fish  quarrel,  both  fall  a  prey. 


46o  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

any  other,  was  due  the  final  uverlhrow  of  the  fabric 
which  he  had  spent  his  life  in  erecting. 

ThrouHi  jealuusv  an-l  a.iger,  he  made  an  enemy  ot 
Chang  1,  who  ever  after  suught  to  work  his  rum.  Yield- 
ing to  a  more  tender  passion,  he  became  involve.1  in  an 
undiplomatic  intrigue,  flight  and  death  bemg  the  dis- 
astrous consequence.  _ 

Finding  himself  under  the  necessity  of  leavmg  the 
court  of  Yen,  to  escape  the  consetiuences  of  a  luiison 
whidi  lie  had  formed  with  a  princess,  he  begged  the  prince 
to  >end  him  on  a  mission  to  the  kingdom  of  Ch'i,  alleging 
that  he  could  there  promote  his  interests  much  better  tban 
bv  remaining  at  home.  Arriving  there,  he  entered  the 
service  of  the  foreign  slate;  and  subsciuemly.  his  m- 
trigucs  against  its  welfare  being  detected,  he  was  bound 
J,etween  two  chariots  and  torn  to  pieces.— a  melancholy 
emblem  of  the  empire  of  that  day.  rent  asunder  by  the 
opposing  forces  represented  by  the  Leagues  of  the  East 
and  West. 

Su's  conduct  in  the  kingdom  of  Ch'i  finds  a  pretty 
close  parallel  in  that  of  Chetardie  at  the  court  of  Russia. 

who  narrowly  escaped  a  like  hideous  fate.* 

ChauK  I  stands  ne.xt,  by  common  consent,  on  the  list  of 
internal it)iial  statesmen  of  ancient  times.  In  talent  not 
much  inferior  to  Su  Cb'in,  bis  career  is  wanting  in  that 
unilv  wliiob  imparts  a  kind  of  grandeur  to  the  achieve- 
ments of  Su.  His  life  was  divided  between  internal  ad- 
ministration and  external  politics. 

*  In  .1  iiotf  to  the  GiiUtr  Diplomatique  of  de  Martens.  Volume 
1.  iiaRO  8.i.  wt'  h.ivt-  ;i  I'litf  account  of  the  incident  alluded  to. 
1  cite  lure  niu-  nr  two  liiii---  niily  :  - 

"La  Oietardie,  anilKissndi  iir  .Ic  avail  fii  la  prituipale 

part&  la  revolution  qui  plaga  Elisabeth  sur  la  trone  .'c  Kn.^u'." 

•  La  Chetardie  s'etait  immistt  dans  les  intrigues  Je  cour  . 
....   11  ne  tarda  pas  a  s'en  repcntir." 


DIPLOMACY  IN  ANCIENT  CHINA  461 


As  adniinislraior  and  military  chief,  he  served  by  turns 
three  or  four  states,  always  giving  a  teiniwrary  prc- 
pouilcrancc  tu  the  one  he  served —unlike  his  rival  who 
served  six  at  once,  and  promoted  equally  tlie  interests  of 
all. 

As  a  negotiator,  he  effected  one  or  two  powerful  alli- 
ances; but  his  chief  claim  to  distinction  is  tlie  skill  lie 
showed  in  sowing  discord  among  the  members  of  the 
eastern  league,  to  avenge  himself  for  an  insult  received 
at  the  hand  :)f  a  faitiiless  friend. 

That  insult  was  received  on  the  threshold  of  his  career. 
As  Su  had  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  in  the  north- 
west, so  Chang  began  by  a  fruitless  journey  to  Ch'u,  in 
the  south.  Jn  the  meantime,  his  friend  had  risen  to 
eminence,  and  he  sought  to  join  him  at  the  court  of 
Chao.  Si',  however,  was  as  yet  only  forging  the  second 
link  of  his  diplomatic  chain.  Whether  he  dreaded  the 
disturbing  influence  of  a  mind  too  original  to  become  a 
tool,  or  whether  he  feared  that  the  lustre  of  Chang  I's 
talent  would  obscure  tne  brightness  of  his  own,  he  treated 
him  with  disdain,  and  found  means  to  send  him  away 
from  the  scene  of  his  own  activity.  In  his  eagerness  to 
rid  himself  of  a  possible  rival,  he  even  supplied  him  with 
money  and  with  atten.lants,  to  escort  him  as  far  as  the 
capital  of  the  north-western  kingdom. 

Chang  saw  through  the  stratagem,  and  vowed  that 
Su  shoul.l  repent  of  it.  Winning  the  confidence  of  the 
Prmce,  he  rose  to  the  highest  positions  in  the  state,  being 
sometimes  general,  sonuMimes  (hplomatic  envoy,  and  more 
than  once  clothed  with  the  dignity  of  prime  minister. 

As  head  of  the  administration,  he  developed  the  re- 
sources of  the  state,  and  prei-.ired  the  wav  for  its  ultimate 
triumph.  As  a  leader  of  troops  ho  was  uniformlv  suc- 
cessful ;  but  it  was  in  a  third  character,— that  of  diplo- 


462  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

matist,— that  lie  performed  the  most  marvelous  feats. 
Labouring  to  undo  the  work  of  Su,  he  contrived  to  keep 
him  in  a  state  of  ixTi.fUu.i  anxiety  .iurin.i;  his  hfc-tuiK-; 
and  ultinuitely  to  ctT-  rt  the  .lissolution  of  the  confederacy 
immediately  on  the  death  uf  its  founder. 

The  most  remarkable  incidents  in  his  career  nccnrred 
in  the  kiiii;(loin  uf  <"h'u.    < 'i,  his  first  visit,  which,  as 
we  have  said,  was  i-nmucessful,  he  had  the  misfortune 
to  be  set  upon  by  his  enemies  and  badly  beaten.  Taunted 
by  his  wife  for  his  damaged  appearance,  he  opened  his 
mouth  and  asked  h-r  to  see  if  his  tongue  was  in  its  place. 
On  her  answering  in  the  affirmative,  he  added,—"  With 
this  I  shall  retrieve  my  fortunes,"— and  he  kept  his  word. 
So  great,  indeed,  were  his  powers  of  persuasion  that  he 
often  disarmed  hostility,  and  sometimes  raised  himself 
to  power,  where  he  had  been  menaced  with  destruction. 
To  ci-.  nnlv  one  in.stance :— The  Prince  of  Ch'in  engaged 
in  wai  with  Ch'u.  stirred  up  perhaps  by  his  minister's 
hatred  for  the  state  where  he  had  suffered  his  first  great 
huniiliatii  r     The  army  of  C'h'u  was  defeated,  and  Ch'in 
demanded,  a.^  the  price  of  peace,  the  cession  of  a  coveted 
territory  in  exchange  for  another.    The  worsted  Chief 
replied  with      grim  jnke:— "(nve  mc  your  chancellor, 
and  1  w  'l  yici  1  the  territory,  without  asking  a  foot  of 
ground  in  exchange."— The  Prince  of  Ch'in  repeated  this 
flattering  iiroposal  to  his  minister,  but  with  no  thought 
of  compliance. 

To  his  surprise,  Chang  I  replied :— "  1  am  ready ;  send 
me  to  the  cnnip  of  the  onemy." 

On  arrival  he  was  throv.Ti  'nto  prison,  and  menaced 
with  death;  hut  he  had  one  a.  qt  aintance,  whom  he  could 
rely  on  as  nmiois  in  curia.  I'lir  >ugh  this  man,  he  con- 
veyed to  the  niRnins  i  i'intiy  a  hint  that  the  western 
prince  was  about  to  send  a  1  cautiful  woman  as  his  ran- 


DIPLOMACY  IN  ANCIENT  CHINA  463 


som.  Tlie  lady  took  alarm,  and  procured  his  release  with- 
out waiting  for  the  ransom. 

Just  al  thai  iiiumciit,  the  news  of  Su's  death  came  to 
his  ears,  suggesting  the  possibility  of  turning  his  tempor- 
ary captivity  into  a  veritable  victory.  Seeking  an  inter- 
view with  the  Prince,  under  guise  uf  thanking  him  for 
sparing  his  life,  he  sought  to  rejiay  his  debt  of  gratitude 
by  tendering  the  best  advice  he  was  able  to  offer;  that 
was  that  he  should  abandon  tin.'  cuufederacy,  and  throw 
in  his  fortunes  with  his  powerful  neighbor.  The  I'rince 
desired  to  bear  the  reasons  for  such  a  startling  proposi- 
tion ;  and  Chang  set  them  forth  with  clearness  and  force, 
concluding  a  discourse,  not  inferior  to  Su's  liest  spcce-lies. 
with  a  reconnncnilation  to  cement  the  peace  by  accepting 
his  neighbor "s  son  as  a  hostage,  and  giving  his  own  in 
exchange:  and  further  to  consolidate  the  union,  by  asking 
in  marriage  a  princess  of  Ch'in.  No  translation  can  do 
justice  to  his  masterly  argument,  because  it  bristles  all 
over  with  ai'u-ions  to  i)lacc-s  whose  names  arc  strange 
to  European  cars,  and  facts  of  history  which,  out  of  China, 
have  no  significance. 

l!ut  the  Prince,  io  whom  it  was  addressed,  understood 
it.  Every  word  tuck  effect; — how  deep  the  effect  may 
be  juilged  from  the  fact  that  his  kin  ;  :  n,  Ch  u  Yuan, 
the  gifted  poet,  tried  in  vain  to  deter  him  from  following 
the  counsel  of  Chang  I, 

His  energetic  rcnmnst ranee  is  not  too  long  to  give 
in  full.  '•  Your  Highness,"  .said  he,  "  has  once  an  *  again 
been  the  victim  of  Chani;  Ps  deceptions.  When  your 
enemy  had  come  into  your  hands,  1  look  it  for  granted 
you  would  roast  him  alive.  Now  if  you  have  relented 
so  far  as  to  refrahi  from  putting  !<.m  to  death,  why  should 
you  go  a  step  further,  and  li.sien  to  his  deceitful  advice?  " 

The  prince  persisted,  and,  to  make  a  long  story  sho  t 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


the  poet,  like  Aliiihuphel,  went  away  and  destroyed  him- 
self, his  hapless  fate  being  commemorated  by  the  annual 
festival  of  dragon  boats. 

On  Ills  uav  liuine,  Chang  visited  the  court  of  Han, 
and  succeeded  in  delachnig  tlie  prince  of  that  country 
also  from  the  confederacy. 

Arriving  al  the  capital  of  Ch'in,  picture  to  yourselves 
the  glory  of  his  triumphal  entry.  He  had  gone  forth 
alone  and  unattended,  a  voluntary  peace-offering,  to  be 
sacrificed  to  the  resentnunt  ..f  a  hostile  state.  Ho  re- 
turned leailing  in  his  train  the  envoys  of  that  state,  and 
those  of  another  hereditary  enemy. 

The  Prince  of  ClTin  was  duly  scnsil)!e  of  the  value  of 
this  service,  and  conferred  on  the  hero  the  lordship  of 
five  cities.  So  well  had  Chang  I  succeeded  in  his  attempt 
to  detach  Ch'u  and  Han,  that  he  resolved  not  to  desist 
fnini  his  uii.leriaking  until  the  confederacy  should  be 
utterly  demolished.  At  his  reiiuest,  his  master  com- 
missioned him  to  proceed  successively  to  the  capitals  of 
Chao.  of  Yen.  and  of  Ch  i.  The  histories  tell  us  what 
he  said  to  each  prince;  how  he  tempered  menace  with 
flattery,  so  that,  on  reading  each  several  discourse,  we 
are  not  surprised  that  the  prince,  to  whom  it  was  ad- 
dressed, should  feel  impelled  by  ambition,  as  well  as  by 
prudence,  to  follow  the  policy  so  powerfully  advocated. 

One  by  one,  all  of  the  states  which  Su  had  so  l?hor- 
iously  arrayed  against  Ch'in.  Chang  I  had  the  satisfaction 
of  seeing  at  the  feet  of  his  master,  humbly  acknowledg- 
ing the  hegemony  of  the  north-western  power.  Recall 
the  long  negotiations  that  were  required  to  bring  the 
pett\  states  of  Greece  to  accept  the  hegemony  of  Sparta 
or  Athens,  and  ynu  can  appreciate  the  greatness  of 
Chang  T's  diplomatic  triumph. 

For  three  centuries,  the  leadership  among  the  feudal 


DIPLOMACY  IN  ANCIENT  CHINA  465 


states  had  been  the  great  object  of  ambition.  Four  of 
them  had  enjoyed  it  in  succession,  feeling  satisfied  with 
that  distinction  without  dreaming  of  attaining  the  im- 
perial yellow. 

Ch'in  was  the  last  to  erect  the  standard  of  leadership, 

and  Cliang  I's  diplomacy  was  tlie  proximate  influence 
that  led  the  other  states  to  rally  round  it.  A  century 
was  yet  to  elapse  before  Ch'in  became  bold  enough  to 
usurp  the  imperial  throne.— an  event  which  followed 
naturally  on  the  dcstnuiiun  of  the  most  loyal  of  its 
feudatories.  But  that  is  a  history  into  which  we  have 
no  time  to  enter.  Nor  have  we  time  to  pursue  the  for- 
tunes nf  tills  cdiisumniate  master  of  diplomatic  intrigue 
further  than  to  say  tlial,  losing  power  through  the  death 
of  his  patron,  he  returned  to  his  native  state,  where  he 
was  invested  with  the  honors  of  prime  minister,  and 
died  the  following  year. 

After  the  death  of  Chang,  the  eastern  states,  one  by 
one,  broke  away  from  their  allegiance  to  Ch'in.  Kung 
Sun  Yen,  who  ail  along  had  opposed  the  policy  of 
Chang  I,  now  that  the  latter  was  dead,  exerted  himself 
to  resuscitate  the  confederacy,  and  succeeded  in  doing  so, 
as  Chang  had  succeeded  in  dissolving  it.  on  the  death 
of  Su.  Through  his  efforts,  five  ot  them  were  formed 
into  a  phalanx,  with  hostile  spears  pointing  to  the  North- 
west. Kung  Sun,  as  siKTi-.-sor  to  Su,  received  the  grand 
seal  of  chancellor  of  the  union.  This  ephemeral  success, 
easier  far  than  the  untried  enterprise  of  his  predecessor, 
caiist's  him  to  he  ranked  among  the  noted  diplomatists  of 
that  troubled  period.  We  dismiss  him  with  this  brief 
notice,  merely  calling  attention  to  him  as  chancellor  of 
the  second  F.aslcrn  li-agne. 

In  this  second  league,  the  principality  of  Chao  took  a 
leading  part,  as  it  had  done  in  the  first.   In  command  of 


466  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

the  gate  of  tlu  west,  its  strategic  position  was  imposing; 
but  it  owed  its  iiiHuciu-c  in  the  league  ti)  its  good  fortune 
in  p  .ssessiiig  the  ablest  general  and  the  most  gifted 
statesman  uf  the  age.  The  general  was  Lien  Fo,  and 
the  statesman  Un  Hsiang  Ju,  of  whom  we  shall  speak 
onlv  in  his  eharacler  of  envoy  and  negotiator. 

Two  incidents  in  his  history  will  serve  to  throw  light 
on  the  times  in  which  he  lived.  His  prince  possessed  a 
gem  of  great  value,  like  tlie  koh-i-uoor,  uniciue.— the  envy 
of  neighboring  potentates.  The  I'rince  of  Ch  in  sent  an 
embassy  to  offer  fifteen  cities  in  exchange  for  it.  Its 
owner  was  afraid  to  refuse,  and  e(iually  afraid  to  comply, 
lest  the  other  party  should  not  act  in  good  faith.  Lin, 
then  a  young  official  in  the  household,  said  to  his  master : 
—"You  need  not  fear  the  loss  of  the  gem;  send  me 
with  it.  and.  if  the  cities  are  not  surrendered,  1  will  be 
answerable  for  its  safe  return." 

Arriving  at  the  court  of  Ch'in,  and  appearing  in  the 
presence  of  the  prince  for  the  purpose  of  ofTering  the 
gem,  he  discovered  that  the  prince  was  inclined  to  play 
him '  false,  by  detaining  the  gem,  and  withholding  at 
least  a  pari  uf  the  price,  (^n  perceiving  this,  Lin  stealthily 
slipped  the  gem  into  the  bosom  of  a  trusty  servant,  who, 
following  an  unfrequented  path,  conveyed  it  safely  home. 
Lin,  of  course,  remained  at  court,  and,  when  tlie  fact  be- 
came known,  he  offered  to  give  his  life,  if  required,  in  lieu 
of  the  gem.  The  prince,  appreciating  his  courage  and 
fidelity,  let  him  go  unharmed.  On  reaching  home  he  was 
loaded  with  lionours;  and  one  hopes  the  faithful  "  ^stic 
was  not  forgotten.  It  is  related  of  one  of  >  crown 
jewels  of  Russia  that,  in  a  time  of  trouble,  it  was  once 
given  to  a  servant  to  convey  to  a  place  of  safety.  The 
.servant  said  as  he  departed:—"  If  I  should  be  slain  by 
the  way,  you  will  find  the  jewel  ir  .Tiy  body."   He  was 


DIPLOMACY  IN  ANCIENT  CHINA  467 


slain,  and  his  master,  recovering  his  body,  found  the 
jewel  in  his  stomach. 

Tlie  other  iiicitlent  in  the  Wfe  of  Lin  relates  t(j  a  cere- 
monious meeting  of  two  princes.  They  met  on  the  com- 
mon frontier,  each  accompanied  by  his  diplomatic  adviser. 
In  a  festive  humor,  tiie  i'rince  of  Ch'in  asked  his  brother 
prince  to  favor  him  with  a  specimen  of  the  music  in 
which  he  was  known  to  be  a  proficient.  The  recjuest  was 
imsuspectingly  comphed  with,  but  Lin  saw  in  it  a  design 
to  treat  his  master  with  indignity.  "  Now,"  said  he  to 
the  Prince  of  Jh'in,  "  it  is  your  turn ;  please  beat  the 
tabor  after  the  manner  of  your  country."  The  prince 
hesitating,  he  added: — "If  you  rcfu.se,  I  shall  spatter 
my  blood  on  your  royal  robes,  as  a  protest  against  the 
affront  you  have  put  upon  my  master."  Hearing  this, 
the  guards  rushed  upon  him,  and  were  alioiit  to  cut  him 
down;  but  his  fearless  bearing  held  them  in  check,  and 
the  haughty  prince,  not  wishing  to  bring  the  conference 
to  a  tragic  ending,  gave  a  few  beats  on  the  tabor.  The 
princes  parted  on  equal  terms;  and  Lin  was  raised  to 
the  highest  rank  in  the  state,  for  having  saved  the 
honour  of  his  master. 

When  Bismarck  lighted  his  cigar  in  the  diet  at  Frank- 
fort,— a  privilege  regarded  as  belonging  exclusively  to 
the  ambassador  of  Austria, — ^all  Germany  was  astounded 
at  his  audacity.  Not  less  were  the  .states  of  China,  at 
the  boldness  of  Lin,  in  compelling  the  mightiest  prince 
of  the  empire  to  keep  time  to  his  master's  music.  In 
either  case,  a  trivial  act  was  clothed  with  a  trravc  political 
significance ;  and  it  evinced  diplomatic  talent  of  the  high- 
est order  to  turn  it  to  account. 

The  famous  general  Lien  I''o,  who,  jircvious  to  this  oc- 
currence, had  enjoyed  the  first  rank  in  his  state,  felt 
it  as  a  personal  outrage  that  a  man,  whom  he  looked 


468 


THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 


on  as  an  upstart,  sliould  suddenly  be  raised  above  bini. 
Forj,'etting  that  the  statesman  is  above  the  soldier,  and 
that  good  diplomacy  rc(iiiircs  thi'  biglii-t  kind  of  stat<  - 
mauship;  he  Icl  it  be  known  that,  wherever  he  sliuunl 
meet  his  rival,  he  would  insult  him  to  his  face.  Lin, 
hearing  of  this  thri;a.  to,,k  pains  to  avoid  a  meeting. 
The  general,  remarking  this,  sent  liini  a  half  contemptu- 
ous message,  asking  an  explanation  of  his  strange  and 
undignified  conduct,  which  he  was  not  at  liljerty  to  im- 
pute to  fear,  after  the  proofs  he  had  seen  of  Lin's  jier- 
.sonal  courage.  Lin  replied:—"  If  1  avoid  an  encounter, 
it  is  because  yotir  life  and  mine  are  indispensalde  to  the 
safety  of  our  country.  If  Ch'in  refrains  from  attacking 
Chao,  it  is  on  account  of  us  two.  The  I'rince  of  Ch'in 
would  be  delighted  to  see  us  fall  by  each  other's  hands." 

The  general  was  so  struck  with  tliis  patriotic  answer, 
and  particularly  with  Lin's  moral  courage  in  exposing 
himself  to  a  suspicion  of  cowardice  rather  than  bring  a 
calamitv  on  his  country,  that  he  frankl\  confessed  him- 
self in  fault,  in  the  ceremonious  fashion  tlien  in  vogue. 
Coming  to  Lin's  door  with  a  rod  in  his  hand,  instead 
of  using  it  on  Lin,  he  begged  th:it  it  tnighl  he  applied  to 
his  own  hack.  The  two  rushed  into  each  other's  arms, 
swore  to  he  brothers,  and  sealeil  the  covenant  by  drink- 
ing a  cup  of  wine,  mingled  with  blood  drawn  from  the 
veins  of  hi^tli.  Who,  on  heariii,;;  this,  can  fail  to  recall 
the  manner  in  which  Aristides  and  Thcmistocles  laid  aside 
their  deadly  fend, — how,  when  Xerxes  was  threatening 
the  liberties  of  (/ireece,  knowing  that  union  is  strength, 
they  dug  a  pit  and  formally  buried  their  enmity,  not  to 
be  resurrected  until  the  danger  was  past? 

If  I  have  followed  the  career  of  particular  state>nKn 
with  consider:  lie  detail,  it  is  because  1  have  thought 
I  might  in  that  way  present  a  more  vivid  picture  of  the 


DIPLOMACY  IN  ANCIENT  CHINA  469 


diplomacy  of  tlie  period.  \  it-wctl  from  a  moral  staml- 
point,  that  diplomacy  was  not  above  criticism.  It  Ixiars 
little  reseinbiaiice  to  tlie  trati^i)aroiit  caiidnr  and  iiniiK'i-- 
iilate  integrity,  which  characterize  the  Kiiropeaii  diplo- 
macy of  our  own  day  f  For  has  not  diplomacy,  like  every- 
lliiiij;  elM-,  risen  aiiove  the  level  t>f  furiner  ages?  is  it 
not  a  recognized  maxim,  in  our  enliglil-  ned  times,  that 
honesty  is  the  best  policy?  Is  it  not  equally  a  maxim 
that  the  advantage  of  each  is  found  in  the  prosperity  of 
all  ?  What  representative  of  a  European  power  ever  dis- 
guises the  truth,  or  thinks  of  taking  advantage  of  the 
ignorance  or  weakness  i>i  the  ptnver  with  which  he  is 
called  to  negotiate?  In  fact,  what  is  diplomacy,  as  we 
understand  it,  but  another  name  for  philanthropy? 

Chinese  statesmen  of  the  period  under  review  had  not 
yet  attained  to  this  sublime  conception ;  "  let  every  man 
work  for  his  own  master,"  was  the  nia.xim  they  openly 
professed, — a  maxim  often  quoted  to  excuse  deviations 
from  rectitude. 

Envoys  went  ?nd  came  on  all  occasions  calling  for 
felicitation  or  condolence,  and  I  will  not  assert  that  they 
wcie  tuo  hijjh-mindcd  to  improve  the  opportunity  to  spy 
out  the  nakedness  of  the  land ;  or  that  custom  forbade 
them,  while  professing  peace,  to  make  pre])aration  for 
war. 

There  existed  a  code  of  recognized  rules  for  the  regu- 
lation of  intercourse  by  means  of  diplomatic  envoys.  1 
have  touched  on  these  in  a  previous  chapter.  My  object 
in  this,  has  been  rather  to  show  diplomacy  in  action,  than 
to  set  forth  eitlier  rules  or  theories.  The  following  facts 
will  prove  interesting: — 

I. — Among  the  privileges  of  ambassadors,  as  laid 
down  in  the  ancient  books  of  China,  we  find  no  trace  of 
that  convenient  fiction  known  as  extra-territoriality. 


470 


THE  LORE  OF  CAThAY 


Tlic  hospitable  Spaniard,  in  Ikicnos  Ayrcs,  sends  you 
a  card  of  invitation  to  come  to  "  your  own  house,"  in 
such  and  siicli  a  street.  Sn,  western  peoples  have  agreed 
that  a  diplomatic  envoy,  as  guest  of  the  nation,  shall  be 
considered  as  living  and  moving  on  his  own  grountl.  li 
is  a  little  siufjular  that  the  C'hinese  never  thnujjh*  of 
expressing  their  sense  of  the  inviolable  sanctity  of  such 
envoys  in  a  similar  manner,  csiiecially  as  their  language 

luit  wanting  in  similar  fictions,  dictated  by  courtesy  or 
flattery. 

As  a  principle,  the  sanctity  of  an  amlassador's  person 
was  fully  admitted;  but  in  praciice,  it  was  frequently 
violated.  Nor  is  tbat  to  be  wontlered  at.  in  a  state  of 
society  in  which  ambassadors  regarded  it  as  tiieir  main 
business  to  mingle  in  court  intrigues. 

2.  —  In  the  diplomacy  of  aiu  ii  nt  Cliiua,  there  was  no 
such  thing  as  a  minister  plenipnteutiary. 

The  sovereign  always  held  himself  free  to  disavow  the 
acts  of  his  representative,  whenever  it  niij,dit  suit  his 
policy  so  to  do.  When  the  Chinese  were  first  confronted 
with  that  term,  in  their  negotiations  with  the  west,  they 
ex[)resscd  some  sur{>rise,  an<I  (leclined  loacLtpi  There 
is  only  one  plenipotentiary  in  th?  empire,"  they  said; 
"  that  is  the  Emperor."  It  re(|uireil  nothing  less  than  th  - 
storming  of  his  forts  to  induce  the  Emperor  to  grant 
the  title. 

3.  — In  the  diplomacy  of  ancient  China,  there  was  no 
such  thing  as  a  resident  minister;  they  were  all  envoyes 

cxtraortV.HiUrcs. 

liut  they  found  occasion  to  prolong  their  stay  for 
months  or  years ;  and,  in  many  cases,  they  were  kept 
};<jinK  back  and  forth  so  frequently  as  to  accomplisli  all 
the  purposes  of  residence,  together  with  the  additional 
advantage  of  frequent  conference  with  their  chiefs. 


DIPLOMACY  IN  ANCIENT  CHINA  471 


As  an  example  o£  the  kiml  o£  reports  they  were  ex- 
pected to  make,  I  may  meution  that  Su  Tai,  the  brother 

uf  the  more  notcti  Sii,  uf  wliuiii  uc  Iiave  heard,  was  (jiice 
-sent  as  ambassador  to  Ch'i.  On  returning,  his  master 
desired  him  to  report  on  the  state  of  that  country,  and 
till-  cliaract'jr  of  it>  prince,  with  particular  reference  to 
the  question  wlutlitr  lie  was  aspiring  to  the  hegemony, 
or  liad  any  prospect  of  attaiiiiiijf  it. 

As  an  instance  of  frc(|ueiit  ami  prolonged  missions,  I 
may  cite  the  case  of  Ch  in  t  lun.  lUing  often  sent  on 
missions  to  Ch  u.  he  was  accused  by  CJiang  I  of  enrich- 
ing himself  without  benefitting  his  chief.  Charged  with 
drawing  eniolimients  from  two  states,  and  inakin;;  liiniself 
a  persona  grata  at  the  foreign  court  without,  in  any  way, 
improving  the  state  of  foreign  relations,  he  defended 
himself  successfully;  and  1  only  cite  the  case  as  an 
illustration  of  the  point  in  hand. 

4. — The  politica'  relations  of  the  great  states  of  ancient 
China  afford  a  r..iiarl  il)Ie  analogy  to  thee  of  the  states 
of  modern  Europe,  h.  the  fomier,  the  diplomacy  of  the 
period  turned  on  the  question  of  furthering  or  checking 
the  progress  of  one  iK)wer.  which  ai)peared  to  aim  at 
universal  dominion.  W  ho  shall  say  that  the  situation  in 
Europe  may  not  be  described  under  the  same  fornmla.'' 
Reversing  the  points  of  the  compass, — a  political  map 
of  the  one  might  serve,  mutatis  iiuitanJis.  for  that  of  the 
other.  And  who  shall  blame  the  Chinese  for  reading  the 
wars  and  alliances  of  modem  Europe  in  the  light  of  their 
own  ancient  history?  When  they  reail  how  fur  centuries 
the  eyes  of  Russia  have  been  fixed  on  the  imperial  city 
of  the  Bosphorus;  how  the  first  Napoleon,  on  the  eve  of 
his  (ii.sa.strous  expedition,  predicted  the  danger  of  I-.urope 
becoming  Cossack;  how,  in  1854,  the  adva.ice  of  Russia 
was  checked  by  another  Napoleon,  in  concert  with  Eng- 


471  THE  LORE  OF  CATHAY 

land;  how.  in  1878,  »he  was  compelled,  by  a  ccmference 

of  the  Powers,  to  rflin(|iiish  her  prey  when  f.iirlv  williiti 
her  grasp;  and  how  in  iyo3  she  absorbed  Manchuria; — 
will  they  not  believe  that  their  great  cycle  has  come  round 
again,  and  that  their  own  old  drama  is  being  repeated  on 
a  new  and  grander  theater? 

Tluiitgh  the  aptitude  of  the  Giinese  for  diplomacy  is 
freely  admitted,  it  is  tiot  so  generally  known  that  their 
coliisiniis  \.'th  fiircifjn  jwnvers  have  mostiv  -iiirimK  from  a 
want  of  liijiliiiiiaiic  tact.  Their  long  iMil.ilion  and  the 
immensity  of  the  empire  under  one  sovereij^ii  led  them  to 
d('s()i'<c  (itl  IT  II  iiiniis,  and  in  divputes  with  them  to  resort 
to  violence,  instead  of  diplomacy. 

In  18^9.  Lin  brought  on  the  opium  war  by  depriving 
the  fort-^;ii  community  of  liberty  and  threatening  them 
with  death. 

In  1857,  Yell  provoked  the  '  Arrow  '  war  by  summarily 
executing  for  piracy  a  boat's  crew  sailing  under  the 

Briti-sh  flag. 

In  1797  and  18 16,  China  demanded  the  kotow  of  vas- 
salage from  Great  Britain;  and  in  1859  she  demanded  it 
from  the  Tnited  States,  thus  alienating  ihose  who  might 
have  been  her  friends. 

This  spirit  culminated  in  1900  when  a  Tartar  Dowager 
attempted  to  slangliter  the  envoys  of  eleven  nations. 

China  needs  to  learn  in  the  school  of  adversity 


INDEX 


"  A    .i  .    -1  no 

"  A  sun  i--  burn,"  14- 

Atihf  ll\!c.  49 

Academic  Degrees,  304 

Academic  Honors.  317;  Legion 
c>f  Honor.  .Vx) 

/I'lsop,  translation  of,  145 

Age  of  philosophy,  34 

Agnosticism,  Chinese,  42 

Alchemy,  based  on  Taoist  ma- 
terialism. 53 :  "  nook  of 
Changes"  Transformation, 
70;  extracts  from  C'hine-e 
teachers,  5(1;  origin  of.  1S2; 
original  with  China.  40.  71  ; 
source  of  chemi-lry.  44:  --lill 
oeenli  -liiiice,  jg;  students 
i  lodged  III  --eereiy.  55:  Wc-t 
and  East  comij.ired.  44.  ('6. 

Allusions,  historical,  etc.,  in 
Chinese  literature,  135 

Ance>tral  worship,  178,  264;  at- 
titude of  Jesuits  toward,  277; 
attitude  of  mi-sion.aries  to- 
ward, ^'77:  ceremonial  of.  264; 
heart  of  religion  of  China, 
267;  idolatry  excrescence  not 
essence,  277:  inlluence  of 
Buddhism.  270:  objectionable 
features,  26g ;  occasions  for, 
272;  only  religion  favored  hy 
State,  266;  prayers  to  the 
dead,  273;  relation  tf>  Chinese 
conservatism,  275  ;  relation  to 
Christianity,  27s  relation  of 
Confucius  to  it,  268;  relation 
to  social  order,  270 ;  relation  to 
the  Three  Religions,  267; 
Spontaneous  in  origin.  268 

"  Ann.tls  of  Lii."  44,^ 

Antiiiuily.  imitation  of,  118 

Arrow  War,  The,  472 

Astronomy,  Chinese,  29 


Authors,  rewards  of,  302 
Avery.  Renj  P..  Letter  to  Com- 

mis>ion(  r  b'.-non.  282 
Awakening  in  Cliina.  7 
Avieenna-  l-Jm-Cinna    or  Ibn 

Sina — ijon  of  China,  51 

"  Balance  of  Power  ",  44s 
Benevolence  and  good  faith,  221 
"Book  of  Changes",  152,  242; 
/  Cliiitii.  basis  of  alchemy,  70; 
origin  of.  J4J 
''  Book  01  Oi\f~  " .  243,  350 
■■  Hook  of  l\i!es  ".  o-'.  242,  350 
Boxrr  Outbreak.  8.  472 
Buildlii  111.  :idoption  of  Taoist 
usages.     238;      atheism  of, 
185;  .uitlniitie  utterances.  240; 
claim  to  priority,  249;  contri- 
bution of  Christian  terms,  261 ; 
contribution      to  Chinese 
thought,  253  ;  element  of  hope, 
257;  elsewhere  than  in  China, 
255;    Faith,   Hope,  Charity, 
259;  forgeries,  239:  influence 
on  philosophy.  37;  introduced 
into  China,  18X;  mona-ticism 
of,    185;   oldest  manuscripts, 
251;  pliilosophy  of,  186:  plas- 
tic character  of.  252 ;  popular- 
ity in  China,  184;  preparation 
for  Cliristianity,  249;  prepar- 
ing way  fo.  Christian  graces, 
258 ;  relation  to  Christian  eth- 
ics, 259;  satisfied  a  conscious 
want,  254;  sources  of  knowl- 
edge of.  250 ;  superiority  of  its 
divinities,  254:  varying  influ- 
ence in  different  ^es,  353 
Buddhist  tenples,  Location  ot, 
184 

Cardinal  virtues,  The,  219 


475 


476 


INDEX 


"  Celestial  Rhetoric"'.  3^)1 
Chart  of  Chinese  Etliic-,  207, 
230 

Chart  of  Human  Nature,  214, 
231 

Chart  of  Moral  Excellence,  219, 

CIk'Ihi'-i ry  aiul  .•ilclu'iiiy,  44 
( 'li;1cli\ii,  >luw  ilcviliiinni  nl  i>(. 
jS.i. 

'  linia.  (li  !r:(H  racy  of,  ,111:  (!if- 
fcTi-m  I'  liii-  cf  governiiu-in. 
10;  liij-ii'iy  III  ciiiisoliilation 
of.  452;  New  China,  The,  8; 
rcf(jrm.  not  incapable  of,  8; 
rcvoliuion.s  in,  !(>;  tril  utary 
>t:ites.  4j8:  unity  of,  9 
"  Cliiita's  Only  I  loi.c  ",  10 
Cliinc  ( ,  riu',  .anialK'ani,iii<l  wiili 
Monsiolv,  4J5  ;  flironu-lci  s.  not 
hi-l<irian-,  395;  Confiui, mists, 
Unildhisls,  and  Taoisis  at 
OMCI-.  igi  ;  fir~t  to  use  al- 
tln  iny.  41):  fon<l  of  poetry.  75; 
in  C  entral  .\sia,  415:  inilucnce 
of  tdticalion.  281  :  influence  on 
Tartars,  426;  niisundtrstoocl, 
8 :  primitive  type.  425 ;  readi- 
ness to  accept  11.  difications. 
J5 

Chinese  characters,  admir.ilion 
of  the  people  for,  1 13 

Cliinr-.e  civilization,  oiir  indibt- 
edness  to,  J3 

Chiiu'-e  ccii(iiu'~t  of  China.  397 

Chinese  (lipli  iiuacy,  early  char- 
acter of.  4(x) 

Chinese  discoveries.  23 

Chinese  history,  study  cf,  387; 
three  periods  of,  427 

Chinese  and  Hindu  history  cofJ- 

IrriMed,  ,^88 
t'n;!ii-^e  in\ enlioiis,  2,\ 
Clmu  SI-  l,(ML'!ir,   riie  first.  45S 
Chinese   liler;it!ire.  eliar.irleris- 

ties   tif,    I  [2:    refinement  of, 

115:  scli  iols  of.  125 
Chinese  pofiry.  75 
C:  ine-e  rrinrds,  v.iliie  of.  Ill 
Chinese  style,  varieties  of,  114 


Chinese  translations,  117 
Chronology  of  Dynasties,  405 
Cliii  Hsi.  next  to  Confucius  and 

Mencitis  as  a  teacher.  34 
Civil  service,  coniicui  on  with 
American  melhrnl^,  jjS  ;  cotin- 
ter|ioise  to  ahsohii  i>in.  324; 
<Ievelo]iiiient  of.  ,U2;  examina- 
tions. 30S.  314:  examination 
i|iiestir.n~.  322;  grades  of 
scholarship.  315;  inthience  on 
the  gentry,  325 :  number  of 
candidates,  323 :  political  bear- 
ings of,  324;  primary  object 
of.  309:  safety  valve,  324;  sub- 
jects of  examination,  321 
Coalition  of  the  Three  Relig- 
ions, 

Code  of  Chou  Dyna-ty,  433 
Confucan  .Ajioeryiih.i.  87 
Coufui'i.inisni,  ability  to  absorb 
reli^;ion^,  12:   cinoti  of,  241; 
compared    with  Christianity, 
170 ;  comiiared  with  'I'aoisin 
and   Buddhism,    189;  death, 
doctrine  of,  gc) ;  inspiration  of, 
241;  origin  nf,  1 70;  philoso- 
phy, not  a  religion.  17S;  pro- 
scription of,  i.'-'.S:  skeptici.-iiii 
fif.  I7();  time,  emiilem  of.  91) 
( 'oiifnciiis.  ;ipoeryi)b;d  character 
of  iiiajiy  refereiK'es.  87;  as  an 
editor:  78;  hnrn  551  11.  r  ,  171  ; 
ch:ira(-tt  ri:'ariT>n  of  llu-  b-ini'er- 
or.  4,i,r.  rompared  witli  Rud- 
dlia.  246:  dogmaiism  of.  177; 
estimate  of.  by  Menciiis,  245; 
family  traditions.  96;  Filial 
Piety,  doctrine  of.  174;  inspi- 
ration of,  160;  internatioiia! 
good  faith.  443 :  memorabilia, 
f^S;    modern    conception  of, 
246;  modesty  of.  247;  niusi- 
ei:in,  a.  7(1;    I?1ato,  compari- 
son with.   io<):  poetry,  place 
of.  75:  proverbs  of.  173;  real 
and  mythual  eonip:ired.  103; 
reforms  <if.  1 72:  successor  of. 
I'Ci:  toudi  of.  200:  view  of  by 
native  Clirisii.ins.  248. 


Conjugal  fuicllty. 

Coiiipitilivi-  I'xaminalK'iis  (see 

albo  Civil  >LTvicc>,  ju7 
Cotnpos<*ion,  training  m,  292 
Conserv    on  of  energy,  Chinese 

idea  ot,  41 
Cosmogony,  Chinese,  38 

Degrees,  academic,  304 
Ueniocr;icv  of  China.  311 
iJictionary.  'I'lie  (Inal,  ,i5J 
iJiploniacy    in    ancient  China. 
450 

Diplomats  of  Cliitia,  early,  453 
Divination,  National  Book  of, 
361 

Drama,  Chinese,  83 
Dualism  in  nature,  37 
Duties  vs.  rights,  2i(t 
Dynasties,  chronulngy  of,  405; 
edncalion.il  inlluincc  of. 

r..'iton.  Ciininu---ioiU'r,  I.ctter 
from  I'cni,  1-.  .Avt-ry.  jSj 

F.iliu-ati.(l,  cxtrnt  of  informa- 
tion of  the,  355 

I'.(hKalion,  connncnccincnt  of. 
286;  committing  to  memory, 
28g ;  common  schools  lackine, 
297:  contributions  for.  298; 
degrees,  304 ;  examinations, 
303.  307:  i-xtcnt  and  scope  of, 
355  :  fear  as  a  motive,  200 ;  fe- 
male education.  2'K) :  extent  of 
information.  355;  povu  nnutit 
ae<  tu-y.  301  ;  govrinuKiit  rela- 
tion to  J., 7;  gr.nle  i^f  -.l■^^ool^, 
2q6;  liisiory,  sluily  cjf.  307; 
lioini'  life  not  conilucivc  to 
menial  development,  285;  in 
the  home.  284;  influence  on 
national  character,  281 ;  means 
to  an  end,  301 ;  misconcep- 
tions, 300;  no  national  school 
system.  2*)7;  oripinality.  want 
of,  287:  private  instruction, 
297;  ratio  of  illiteracy.  300: 
school  life,  2?>(>:  stapes  of 
studv,  288 ;  subjects  of.  .321 ; 
support  of,  by  the  wealthy, 


IbX  477 

2q8  ;  teachers,  reverence  for, 
-'M- ;  tr.mslation  and  coniposi 
tion,  2yi  ;   type  of  Chinese, 
321 ;  universality  of,  300 

Elixir  of  life,  62 

Emperor  at  Altar  of  Heaven, 
196 

Emperors,  life  of  the,  illus- 
trated in  Hanlin  Memoirs, 

362 

I'liipn^s    Dowager,  opposition 

to  reform,  7 
Encycl<jp;edi,a,  The  Gre.at,  3,!o 
iMKyclopadia  t)f  Pliilo^op'.iy  ", 
,  35-  352 

Envoy,  sacred  character  of,  438 

Essays,  style  of,  123 

Ethical  philosophy  of  China. 

I'.ti  ies.  Chart  of  Chinese.  207 
Involution,   Chinese  conception 
of,  41 

Examination  questions,  322 
Inxamination  of  Sacred  Books, 
291 

F.x.iminations,  sy-teii!  •>!,  303 
ExauMiicrs,  dulRS  of,  305 

Fables  in  Chinese  Literature, 
144 

Fear  as  a  motive  in  education, 

2fX) 

Fenci,ili-ni  in  Chin-.  401 

l''ilial  Pifty  (see  aNo  Ancestral 
wor-hipj,  bond  of  MH-ial  or- 
der. J70:  Confucian  doctrine 
of.  174:  doctrine  of  Confucius, 
Meni'ius  and  Plato,  lob 

Five  elements.  The,  227 

Five,  frequency  of  use  of,  358 

Five  Classics,  289 

Five  orders  of  nobility,  433 

"  Flowers  of  Talent  ",  315 

Force,  definition  of,  41 

Fraternal  duty,  212 

Future  life,  doctrine  ot,  153 

Genghis  Khani  410 
Genii,  236 

Geography  and  astrology,  433 


478 


INDEX 


Geography  of  Chinese,  424 

Girls'  schools,  299 

God,  belief  in,  153   (see  also 

Shang  Ti) 
Golden  Age  nf  Chinese  LeUers. 

127 

Government  relation  to  educa- 
tion. ji)7,  .^01 
Grailv  iif  siiionls,  2f)6 
Great  Si  tidy.  The,  -'13 
Great  \Vall,  The,  399,  409 
Gunpowder,  invention  of,  24 

Hanlin,  'Ihe.  3jn:  academy  of 
inscriptions.  350;  age  of,  ,1,37; 
apartments  of,  333:  belief  in 
occult  sciences,  358;  burned, 
330;  cercnioniis  of.  334;  con- 
stitution of,  341:  lUities  of. 
348;  founder  "i.  .^.iS  ;  lii-l.  .ry 
of,  337:  intenr.'il  par!  of  Gov- 
ernment, .^40;  library,  tiie, 
334:  iiiemliership  of.  .i3.^ : 
5.1einoirsof  the  Aeaik'iny,  300: 
origin  of  name  .U'  ;  quahti- 
cations  for  nieiiiliership.  ,?4S : 
records  of  the  Emperors,  31  -4 : 
simultaneous  with  discovery 
of  printing,  340 

Hanlins  (members  of  Hanlin 
Library),  opposition  to  re- 
form, 17 

Heaven,  personification  of.  ino 

Herodotus  of  China,  i-'o 

Historians,  four  great,  393 

ili-piru-  movements,  three 
great,  397  , 

Historical  works,  character  of, 
393 

Hi.itory,  Chinese  conception  of, 
387;  study  of  Chinese,  307, 
387 

Holy  men.  J43 
llome  eilncati(jn.  284 
Ilos'at'es.  443 

IIm  An  Fn.  sacked  by  Tartars, 
llraiMn  nature,  view  of,  215 
Idolatry  in  China,  165 


Illiteracy,  ratio  of,  300 
Immortality  in  Taoism,  23s 
'nmortality  <'f  the    oul,  be- 
lief in,  253  ;  secret  of.  50 
IniniortaU.     inanifeslatiou  of 
the,  230 

I.iiperial  .Xe.ideniy.  329;  mem- 
bership in.  317 
Imperial    I'linj;    Wen  College, 

Iniperiah-m  in  Chinese  Litera- 
ture. 3(>l 

Individual  and  society.  212 

Individualism  in  Chinese  litera- 
ture, i.'S 

Infonii.ition.  extint  of  anions 
.--eliol.irs.  3,'5.  3^7 

Inspiration.  Chinese  ideas  of, 
^34 

Ititelieetti.il  .Xwakriiiiig.  13 
liiii-rei  nil  -'  Ik  Iu  i  ch  .'>i.iu  s.  .)  jo 
liui-rnational    law    in  ancient 

China,  ij- 
International  relations,  charac- 
ter of,  444 

Kang  Vu  Wei.  so 

Kaoue  on  human  nature,  216 

Kao  Tsu,  Founder  of  Hanlin, 

338 

I'uang  II-u.  attempt  at  reform, 
7 ;  at  Temple  of  Heaven,  196 ; 
reform  decrees,  20 

K'ung,  successor  to  Confucius, 
199 

Laotzc,  Joctrtnes  of,  180;  Li 
Erh,  founder  of  Taoism,  179 
Laureate,  Title  of,  ,307;  duties 

of,  354 
Legion  of  Honorj  360 
Letter  Writing,  characteristics 

of.  1.10 

Li    Erh.    Laotze,    founder  of 

Taoism.  179 
Library  of  Hanlin.  334 
Litirarv  sivlc,  different  forms 

of.  118 

Lyric  poetry,  83 


INDEX 


479 


Mnnrlm  invasion,  The,  410 
Mniularins.  position  and  duties 

uf.  JIO 

"Manual  of  Filial  Duty",  94; 

'55-  , 
Mariner  s  compass,  26 

Mathematics.  Chinese,  30 

Maxims  for  morals,  149 

Memory,  committing  to,  289 

Menciiis,  cslimato  of  Confucius. 

245:  on  Ininian  naturi-.  216; 

on  study  of  nature,  32;  treaty 

convention,  a,  441 ;  miracles, 

power  of,  57 
Mongol  inv.i.sion.  410 
Moral  Excilltncc.  Chart  of,  219 
Moral  sentiment,  theory  of,  221 
Mother  Goose,  156 
Mothers,  education  by,  285 
Mythology  of  Taoism,  183 

Nature  study,  basis  of  Chine>:e 

philosojjhy.  33 
Neutrals,  rights  of.  447 
New  Year's  F.ve.  Song  for,  "9 
Nirvana,  185 

N.iliiliiy.  five  orders  of,  433 
K.  n  combatants,  treatment  of. 
444 

Occult  Sciences  (see  also  Al- 
chemy), believed,  358 
Ode  composed  by  the  Emperor, 

331 

Oriiceholdingnot  hereditary,  310 
Opium  War,  The,  472 

Parallelism  in  Chinese  style, 
11";   in  iducition,  J114 

Peabody,  A  Cliiiu-c.  ^<,X 

Pliilosiipliy.  Cbiiu-^i  fiiniis  of, 
.31,  33;  Cartesian  no'.  Bacon- 
'■m,  35 

Physics.  Chinese,  30 

Planchette.  237 

Poetry,  Chinese  forms  of.  75, 

76,  79 

Poetry,  Manners,  Music,  the 
educational  tripos  of  Confu- 
dus,  76 


Pdlilnal  idea-.  <lfvilnpment  of. 

iO 

Polythei-m    and    Idolatry  of 

China,  165 
Porcelain,  a  Chinese  art,  28 
Practical  joking,  290 
Primitive  Chinese  type,  425 
Printed  paper,  respect  for.  157 
Printing,  invention  of.  27 
"  Promoted  Scholars  ",  315 
Propriety,  --eii^e  of.  220 
I'rii',':  composition,  HI 
Proverbs  of  Confucius,  173 
Providence,  255 
Psychology,  226 
Public  buildings  of  Chinese,  33s 

Questions  for  examination,  322 

"  Ready  for  office  '',  317 
Records,  Chinese  care  for.  389 
Reform  decree-,  jo 
Religious    philo-upliy.  schools 
of.  1 19 

Rcltgiiiiis  llioiiglit,  change  in,  12 
Ki'i  rilriit  !■  111.  I  ract  s  <  ni.  1 53 
Revelations  of  the  uii-een,  237 
Rewards  to  authors.  302 
Rhetoric  in  style,  115 
"  Rites  of  Chou  Dynasty  ",  434 

San  Chiao,  Three  Religions.  165 
Sacred  Books,  expo-ition  of,  291 
Sappho  of  China,  The,  82 
Scholarship,  grades  of,  315 
School  and  family  training.  281 
"  Schoiil  for  the  Sons  of  the 

Empire",  371  _ 
Schools  private,  not  national, 

297 

Science  in  China,  33 

"  Selections  from  a  Thousand 

Bard-  ".  86 
Shang  Ti,  The  Deity.  168;  At 

Temple  of  Heaven,  197 
Sheng  jen  (holy  men),  243 
Sinccritv  of  purpose.  225 
Silk,  manufacture  of.  28 
'■  Sons  of  the  Empire  ",  376 
Sophists  of  China,  88 


48o 


INDEX 


Speculativr  philosophy  in  China 

Spiritualistic  nicd:  mis,  ^jb 
Spiritualistic  revelations,  337 
Stages  of  study,  j88 
State  reliKion.  No  one,  iq6 
'■  Stone  Classics  ",  The,  J74 
Stone  Library  at  Hsi  An  Fu. 
374 

Stylo,  eniphasis  on,  295  :  great 

masters  of,  127 
Sze  Ma  Ch'ien,  Herodotus  of 

China,  89 

Taoism,  geomantic  influence 
of.  i.Sj;  gave  iinpiil>e  to  al- 
chemy, .sj;  iiHli^enou-  to 
China,  i/ij;  matena!i?tic  char- 
acter. i8j;  origin  of,  179; 
philosophy,  intluence  on,  37; 
possible  relation  to  Judaism, 
180;  rationalism  of,  179;  thc- 
ogony  of,  183 

Tartar  Conquest,  The,  398;  in- 
cursions. 417 

Tart.irs  and  Chinese,  antago- 
nism between.  4JI 

Tartars  in  ancient  China,  409; 
intluenced  by  Ciiinese.  4J6 

Temperance  cide.  The  oIiU-sl. 

Temple  of  Heaven,  167;  lim- 
peror  at  the.  196 

Three  Religions,  coalition  of, 
igt :  not  identical  but  supple- 
mentary, 193 

T'ien,  Heaven,  worship  of,  it)6 


Tracts,  in  Chinese  literature, 
14H;  reliKiiiii>  eli.uacter  of, 
too  ;  two  celelir.lted,  15J 

Tran.slation  .uul  exposition  of 

Sacred       ks.  2()3 
Transmigration,    doctrine  of, 

153 

Treaties,  character  of.  440 
Trihm.iry  States  of  Ciiina,  428 
Trinity,    Taoist  conception  of, 

T'ung  Wen  College,  17 

Universe,  origin  of  the.  38 

University,  A  new, 

Universiiy.  ,111  old.  ,(71  ;  ctirricii- 
luni.  .iSl  :  number  nf  -ch"lar~, 
37H  ;  profe-siu  ^liips.  \ahic  of, 
380;  priifes--cirs  duties  of, 
379;   scliol.irsliip.-i  siild,  377 

Virtue,  Confucian  doctrine  of, 
174 

Virtue  and  Vice,  sources  of, 
218 

Virtues,  parent,  219 

Wen  Chang,  Chinese  Belles-let- 
ires.  IJ4:  the  goal  of  students. 

Wen  Hsiang,  favourable  to  re- 
form, 17 

Yung  Wing,  educational  mis- 
sion, 19 


